Top

Optie A:

Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
Optie B:

Deel de link per e-mail
Link delen

vorige artikel The Experiences of Late-diagnosed Women with Au...

volgende artikel Parent-Reported Repetitive Behavior in Toddlers...

Tip

Swipe om te navigeren naar een ander artikel

27-07-2016 | Original Paper | Uitgave 10/2016

Dual Cognitive and Biological Correlates of Anxiety in Autism Spectrum Disorders

Tijdschrift:: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders > Uitgave 10/2016

Auteurs:: Matthew J. Hollocks, Andrew Pickles, Patricia Howlin, Emily Simonoff

» Toegang tot de volledige tekst krijgen

Abstract

Young people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have a high prevalence (~40 %) of anxiety disorders compared to their non-ASD peers. It is unclear whether cognitive and biological processes associated with anxiety in ASD are analogous to anxiety in typically developing (TD) populations. In this study 55 boys with ASD (34 with a co-occurring anxiety disorder, 21 without) and 28 male controls, aged 10–16 years and with a full-scale IQ ≥ 70, completed a series of clinical, cognitive (attention bias/interpretation bias) and biological measures (salivary cortisol/HR response to social stress) associated with anxiety in TD populations. Structural equation modelling was used to reveal that that both attentional biases and physiological responsiveness were significant, but unrelated, predictors of anxiety in ASD.

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Hier inloggen

Met onderstaand(e) abonnement(en) heeft u direct toegang:

BSL Psychologie Totaal

Met BSL Psychologie Totaal blijft u als professional steeds op de hoogte van de nieuwste ontwikkelingen binnen uw vak. Met het online abonnement heeft u toegang tot een groot aantal boeken, protocollen, vaktijdschriften en e-learnings op het gebied van psychologie en psychiatrie. Zo kunt u op uw gemak en wanneer het u het beste uitkomt verdiepen in uw vakgebied.

Meer informatie

Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2000). The Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 39–48. CrossRefPubMed

Bal, E., Harden, E., Lamb, D., Van Hecke, A. V., Denver, J. W., & Porges, S. W. (2010). Emotion recognition in children with autism spectrum disorders: Relations to eye gaze and autonomic state. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 358–370. doi: 10.1007/s10803-009-0884-3. CrossRefPubMed

Bar-Haim, Y. (2010). Research review: Attention bias modification (ABM): A novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 51, 859–870. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02251.x. CrossRef

Bar-Haim, Y., Holoshitz, Y., Eldar, S., Frenkel, T. I., Muller, D., Charney, D. S., et al. (2010). Life-threatening danger and suppression of attention bias to threat. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(6), 694–698. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09070956. CrossRefPubMed

Bar-Haim, Y., Morag, I., & Glickman, S. (2011). Training anxious children to disengage attention from threat: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 52(8), 861–869. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02368.x. CrossRef

Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., Dadds, M. M., & Ryan, S. M. (1996). Family enhancement of cognitive style in anxious and aggressive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 187–203. doi: 10.1007/BF01441484. CrossRefPubMed

Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 49–58. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00069-1. CrossRefPubMed

Bitsika, V., Sharpley, C. F., Andronicos, N. M., & Agnew, L. L. (2015). Hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis daily fluctuation, anxiety and age interact to predict cortisol concentrations in boys with an autism spectrum disorder. Physiology & Behavior, 138, 200–207. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.11.010. CrossRef

Bitsika, V., Sharpley, C. F., Sweeney, J. A., & McFarlane, J. R. (2014). HPA and SAM axis responses as correlates of self- vs parental ratings of anxiety in boys with an Autistic Disorder. Physiology & Behavior, 127, 1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.12.011. CrossRef

Blakeley-Smith, A., Reaven, J., Ridge, K., & Hepburn, S. (2012). Parent–child agreement of anxiety symptoms in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(2), 707–716. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2011.07.020. CrossRef

Bögels, S. M., Snieder, N., & Kindt, M. (2003). Specificity of dysfunctional thinking in children with symptoms of social anxiety separation anxiety, and generalised anxiety. Behaviour Change. doi: 10.1375/bech.20.3.160.24836.

Bouma, E. M. C., Riese, H., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2009). Adolescents’ cortisol responses to awakening and social stress; Effects of gender, menstrual phase and oral contraceptives. The TRAILS study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(6), 884–893. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.01.003. CrossRefPubMed

Corbett, B. A., Schupp, C. W., & Lanni, K. E. (2012). Comparing biobehavioral profiles across two social stress paradigms in children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Molecular Autism, 3, 13. doi: 10.1186/2040-2392-3-13. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Dalgleish, T., Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, M. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., & Yule, W. (2001). An experimental investigation of hypervigilance for threat in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 31, 541–547. doi: 10.1017/S0033291701003567. CrossRefPubMed

Dalgleish, T., Taghavi, R., Neshat-Doost, J., Moradi, A., Canterbury, R., & Yule, W. (2003). Information across clinical disorders: A comparison of attention, memory, and prospective cognition in children and adolescents with depression, generalized anxiety. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 10–21. doi: 10.1207/S15374424JCCP3201_02. CrossRefPubMed

Danese, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiology & Behavior. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.019.

Dodd, H. F., Hudson, J. L., Morris, T. M., & Wise, C. K. (2012). Interpretation bias in preschool children at risk for anxiety: A prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. doi: 10.1037/a0024589. PubMed

Hollocks, M. J., Howlin, P., Papadopoulos, A. S., Khondoker, M., & Simonoff, E. (2014). Differences in HPA-axis and heart rate responsiveness to psychosocial stress in children with autism spectrum disorders with and without co-morbid anxiety. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 46, 32–45. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.04.004. CrossRefPubMed

Hollocks, M. J., Ozsivadjian, A., Matthews, C. E., Howlin, P., & Simonoff, E. (2013). The relationship between attentional bias and anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 6(4), 237–247. doi: 10.1002/aur.1285. CrossRef

In-Albon, T., Dubi, K., Rapee, R. M., & Schneider, S. (2009). Forced choice reaction time paradigm in children with separation anxiety disorder, social phobia, and nonanxious controls. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 1058–1065. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2009.08.003. CrossRefPubMed

Insel, T. R. (2014). The NIMH research domain criteria (RDoC) project: Precision medicine for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(April), 395–397. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14020138. CrossRefPubMed

Jansen, L. M. C., Gispen-de Wied, C. C., van der Gaag, R.-J., & van Engeland, H. (2003). Differentiation between autism and multiple complex developmental disorder in response to psychosocial stress. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 582–590. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300046. CrossRef

Jansen, L. M. C., Gispen-de Wied, C. C., Wiegant, V. M., Westenberg, H. G. M., Lahuis, B. E., & van Engeland, H. (2006). Autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to a psychosocial stressor in adults with autistic spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 891–899. doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0124-z. CrossRefPubMed

Kerns, C. M., Kendall, P. C., Berry, L., Souders, M. C., Franklin, M. E., Schultz, R. T., et al. (2014). Traditional and atypical presentations of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi: 10.1007/s10803-014-2141-7. PubMed

Kirschbaum, C., Kudielka, B. M., Gaab, J., Schommer, N. C., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1999). Impact of gender, menstrual cycle phase, and oral contraceptives on the activity of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61(2), 154–162. CrossRefPubMed

Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The “Trier Social Stress Test”—A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28, 76–81. doi: 10.1159/000119004. CrossRefPubMed

Kodish, I., Rockhill, C., Ryan, S., & Varley, C. (2011). Pharmacotherapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Pediatric Clinics of North America. doi: 10.1016/j.pcl.2010.10.002. PubMed

Krämer, M., Seefeldt, W. L., Heinrichs, N., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Schmitz, J., Wolf, O. T., et al. (2012). Subjective, autonomic, and endocrine reactivity during social stress in children with social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. doi: 10.1007/s10802-011-9548-9.

Lang, P. J. (1985). The cognitive psychophysiology of emotion: Fear and anxiety. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 131–170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Lanni, K. E., Schupp, C. W., Simon, D., & Corbett, B. A. (2012). Verbal ability, social stress, and anxiety in children with autistic disorder. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 16, 123–138. doi: 10.1177/1362361311425916. CrossRef

Lau, J. Y. F., Hilbert, K., Goodman, R., Gregory, A. M., Pine, D. S., Viding, E. M., et al. (2012). Investigating the genetic and environmental bases of biases in threat recognition and avoidance in children with anxiety problems. Biology of Mood and Anxiety Disorders, 2(1), 12. doi: 10.1186/2045-5380-2-12. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Levine, T. P., Sheinkopf, S. J., Pescosolido, M., Rodino, A., Elia, G., & Lester, B. (2012). Physiologic arousal to social stress in children with autism spectrum disorders: A pilot study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 177–183. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2011.04.003. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 205–223. doi: 10.1023/A:1005592401947. CrossRefPubMed

Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview-revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 659–685. doi: 10.1007/BF02172145. CrossRefPubMed

Losh, M., & Capps, L. (2006). Understanding of emotional experience in autism: Insights from the personal accounts of high-functioning children with autism. Developmental Psychology, 42, 809–818. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.809. CrossRefPubMed

Lothmann, C., Holmes, E. A., Chan, S. W. Y., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2011). Cognitive bias modification training in adolescents: Effects on interpretation biases and mood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 52, 24–32. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02286.x. CrossRef

Lyneham, H. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2005). Evaluation and treatment of anxiety disorders in the general pediatric population: A clinician’s guide. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(4), 845–861. doi: 10.1016/j.chc.2005.05.002. CrossRefPubMed

Martel, F. L., Hayward, C., Lyons, D. M., Sanborn, K., Varady, S., & Schatzberg, A. F. (1999). Salivary cortisol levels in socially phobic adolescent girls. Depression and Anxiety, 10, 25–27. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1999)10:1<25:AID-DA4>3.0.CO;2-O. CrossRefPubMed

May, T., Cornish, K., & Rinehart, N. J. (2015). Mechanisms of anxiety related attentional biases in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2500-z. PubMed

Merikangas, K. R., He, J.-P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Mikita, N., Hollocks, M. J., Papadopoulos, A. S., Aslani, A., Harrison, S., Leibenluft, E., et al. (2015). Irritability in boys with autism spectrum disorders: An investigation of physiological reactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12382. PubMedPubMedCentral

Ming, X., Julu, P. O. O., Brimacombe, M., Connor, S., & Daniels, M. L. (2005). Reduced cardiac parasympathetic activity in children with autism. Brain and Development, 27, 509–516. doi: 10.1016/j.braindev.2005.01.003. CrossRefPubMed

Mondelli, V., Dazzan, P., Hepgul, N., Di Forti, M., Aas, M., D’Albenzio, A., et al. (2010). Abnormal cortisol levels during the day and cortisol awakening response in first-episode psychosis: The role of stress and of antipsychotic treatment. Schizophrenia Research, 116, 234–242. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2009.08.013. CrossRefPubMed

Muthén, L., & Muthén, B. (2012). Mplus user’s guide (5th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.

Ozsivadjian, A., Hibberd, C., & Hollocks, M. J. (2014). Brief report: The use of self-report measures in young people with autism spectrum disorder to access symptoms of anxiety, depression and negative thoughts. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 969–974. doi: 10.1007/s10803-013-1937-1. CrossRefPubMed

Ozsivadjian, A., Knott, F., & Magiati, I. (2012). Parent and child perspectives on the nature of anxiety in children and young people with autism spectrum disorders: A focus group study. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 16, 107–121. doi: 10.1177/1362361311431703. CrossRef

Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(8), 741–756. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00022-3. CrossRefPubMed

Rutter, M., Bailey, A., & Lord, C. (2003). The social communication questionnaire. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Salazar, F., Baird, G., Chandler, S., Tseng, E., O’sullivan, T., Howlin, P., et al. (2015). Co-occurring psychiatric disorders in preschool and elementary school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2361-5. PubMed

Salum, G. A., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Gadelha, A., Pan, P., Tamanaha, A. C., et al. (2013). Threat bias in attention orienting: Evidence of specificity in a large community-based study. Psychological Medicine, 43(4), 733–745. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712001651. CrossRefPubMed

Schmitz, J., Krämer, M., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Heinrichs, N., & Blechert, J. (2011). Restricted autonomic flexibility in children with social phobia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 52, 1203–1211. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02417.x. CrossRef

See, J., MacLeod, C., & Bridle, R. (2009). The reduction of anxiety vulnerability through the modification of attentional bias: A real-world study using a home-based cognitive bias modification procedure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 65–75. doi: 10.1037/a0014377. CrossRefPubMed

Simon, D. M., & Corbett, B. A. (2013). Examining associations between anxiety and cortisol in high functioning male children with autism. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 5, 32. doi: 10.1186/1866-1955-5-32. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charman, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., & Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 921–929. doi: 10.1097/CHI.0b013e318179964f. CrossRefPubMed

Spence, S. H. (1998). A measure of anxiety symptoms among children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 545–566. CrossRefPubMed

StataCorp., & 13. (2013). Stata: Release 13. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP.

Sukhodolsky, D. G., Bloch, M. H., Panza, K. E., & Reichow, B. (2013). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety in children with high-functioning autism: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 132, e1341–e1350. doi: 10.1542/peds.2013-1193. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Sumter, S. R., Bokhorst, C. L., Miers, A. C., Van Pelt, J., & Westenberg, P. M. (2010). Age and puberty differences in stress responses during a public speaking task: Do adolescents grow more sensitive to social evaluation? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(10), 1510–1516. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.05.004. CrossRefPubMed

Taghavi, M. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., Moradi, A. R., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (1999). Biases in visual attention in children and adolescents with clinical anxiety and mixed anxiety-depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 215–223. doi: 10.1023/A:1021952407074. CrossRefPubMed

Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., et al. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168, 242–249. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Ulrich-Lai, Y. M., & Herman, J. P. (2009). Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 397–409. doi: 10.1038/nrn2647. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Van Hecke, A. V., Lebow, J., Bal, E., Lamb, D., Harden, E., Kramer, A., et al. (2009). Electroencephalogram and heart rate regulation to familiar and unfamiliar people in children with autism spectrum disorders. Child Development, 80, 1118–1133. CrossRef

van Steensel, F. J. A., Bögels, S. M., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 302–317. doi: 10.1007/s10567-011-0097-0. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

van West, D., Claes, S., Sulon, J., & Deboutte, D. (2008). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal reactivity in prepubertal children with social phobia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 111, 281–290. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.006. CrossRefPubMed

Walkup, J. T., Albano, A. M., Piacentini, J., Birmaher, B., Compton, S. N., Sherrill, J. T., et al. (2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy, sertraline, or a combination in childhood anxiety. The New England Journal of Medicine, 359, 2753–2766. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0804633. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Waters, A. M., Craske, M. G., Bergman, R. L., & Treanor, M. (2008). Threat interpretation bias as a vulnerability factor in childhood anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 39–47. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.002. CrossRefPubMed

Waters, A. M., Henry, J., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Pine, D. S. (2010). Attentional bias towards angry faces in childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 158–164. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.12.001. CrossRefPubMed

Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI). London: The Psychological Corporation.

Wechsler, D. (2005). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (2nd (WIAT II) ed.). London: The Psychological Corp.

White, S. W., Lerner, M. D., McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., Ginsburg, G. S., Kerns, C., et al. (2014). Anxiety in youth with and without autism spectrum disorder: Examination of factorial equivalence. Behavior Therapy. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2014.05.005. PubMedCentral

Wilson, E. J., MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Rutherford, E. M. (2006). The causal role of interpretive bias in anxiety reactivity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 103–111. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.103. CrossRefPubMed

Wood, J. J., Drahota, A., Sze, K., Har, K., Chiu, A., & Langer, D. A. (2009). Cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety in children with autism spectrum disorders: A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 50, 224–234. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01948.x. CrossRef

Wood, J. J., & Gadow, K. D. (2010). Exploring the nature and function of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17, 281–292. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2850.2010.01220.x.

Titel: Dual Cognitive and Biological Correlates of Anxiety in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Auteurs:: Matthew J. Hollocks
Andrew Pickles
Patricia Howlin
Emily Simonoff
Publicatiedatum: 27-07-2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2878-2
Uitgeverij: Springer US
Tijdschrift: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
Uitgave 10/2016
Print ISSN: 0162-3257
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-3432

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Tip

Swipe om te navigeren naar een ander artikel

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Met onderstaand(e) abonnement(en) heeft u direct toegang:

BSL Psychologie Totaal

Andere artikelen Uitgave 10/2016

Brief Report: Self-Based and Mechanical-Based Future Thinking in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Brief Report: Early VEPs to Pattern-Reversal in Adolescents and Adults with Autism

Parent-Reported Repetitive Behavior in Toddlers on the Autism Spectrum

Two-Step Screening of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers in Thai Children with Language Delay and Typically Developing Children

Brief Report: The Effects of Equine-Assisted Activities on the Social Functioning in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Promoting Expressive Language in Young Children with or At-Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Preschool Classroom