Top

Gepubliceerd in:

01-07-2022 | Original Paper

Early Maternal Employment And Children’s School Readiness: Changing Associations Over Time?

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Child and Family Studies | Uitgave 4/2023

Abstract

This study assessed whether the links between early maternal employment and children’s school readiness have changed over time. Research has examined mothers’ labor force participation and its associations with children’s well-being. As maternal employment has become more normative, these associations may have changed, particularly among subgroups of families. Data come from two large, longitudinal samples of children born in the U.S. in 1991 (N = 1042) and in 2001 (N = 7850). OLS regression models estimated changes between cohorts in the associations between early maternal employment and children’s reading/language skills, math skills, and conduct problems at age 4 and school entry. Despite similar prevalence rates of maternal employment by 9 months between the 1991 and 2001 samples, there were differences in the demographic characteristics of mothers in each employment pattern over the decade. Examining associations between the early maternal employment patterns and children’s school readiness, results revealed that full time employment by 9 months in comparison to non-employment shifted to having more positive associations with reading/language skills at age 4 and school entry from 1991 to 2001. However, full time maternal employment by 9 months was associated with children’s higher conduct problems at school entry in 1991 and 2001, and by 2001, part time employment had similar repercussions. The results differed by family income. There have been small changes in the associations between early maternal employment and children’s school readiness over time.

vorige artikel “Don’t Bring Work Home”: How Career Orientation Moderates Permeable Parenting Boundaries in Dual-earner Couples

volgende artikel Employed Parents of Children with Typical and Exceptional Care Responsibilities: Family Demands and Workplace Supports

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for Child Behavior Checklist/ 4-18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Dept. of Psychiatry.

Becker, G. S., & Tomes, N. (1986). Human capital and the rise and fall of families. Journal of Labor Economics, 4, S1–S139. http://www.nber.org/chapters/c11237.pdfCrossRef

Berger, L., Brooks-Gunn, J., Paxson, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2008). First-year maternal employment and child outcomes: Differences across racial and ethnic groups. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 365–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.10.010.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Bianchi, S. (2000). Maternal employment and time with children: dramatic change or surprising continuity. Demography, 37(4), 401–414. www.jstor.org/stable/2648068.

Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995.CrossRef

Borelli, J. L., Nelson-Coffey, S. K., River, L. M., Birken, S. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. (2017). Bringing work home: gender and parenting correlates of work-family guilt among parents of toddlers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(6), 1734–1745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0693-9.CrossRef

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (1997). Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs.(Revised Edition). 1509 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036-1426: National Association for the Education of Young Children. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed403023.

Brooks-Gunn, J., Han, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes in the first three years of life: The NICHD study of early child care. Child Development, 73, 1052–1072. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00457.CrossRefPubMed

Brooks-Gunn, J., Han, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2010). First-year maternal employment and child development in the first 7 years. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2010.00562.x.

Cha, Y. (2010). Reinforcing separate spheres: the effect of spousal overwork on men’s and women’s employment in dual-earner households. American Sociological Review, 75(2), 303–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122410365307.CrossRef

Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Owen, M. T. (1987). Maternal employment in a family context: effects on infant-mother and infant-father attachment. Child Development, 58, 1505–1512. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130690.CrossRefPubMed

Clogg, C. C., Petkova, E., & Haritou, A. (1995). Statistical methods for comparing regression coefficients between models. American Journal of Sociology, 100(5), 1261–1293. https://doi.org/10.1086/230638.CrossRef

Coley, R. L., & Lombardi, C. M. (2013). Does maternal employment following childbirth support or inhibit low-income children’s long-term development? Child Development, 84(1), 178–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01840.x.CrossRefPubMed

Coley, R. L., Votruba-Drzal, E., Miller, P. L., & Koury, A. (2013). Timing, extent, and type of child care and children’s behavioral functioning in kindergarten. Developmental Psychology, 49(10), 1859–1873. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031251.CrossRefPubMed

Collins, C. (2019). Making motherhood work. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRef

Cotter, D., England, P., & Hermsen, J. (2013). Moms and jobs: trends in mothers’ employment and which mothers stay home. In S. Coontz, M. Parson, & G. Raley (Eds.), American families: a multicultural reader (pp. 387–394). New York, NY: Routledge.

Donnelly, K., Twenge, J. M., Clark, M. A., Shaikh, S. K., Beiler-May, A., & Carter, N. T. (2016). Attitudes toward women’s work and family roles in the United States, 1976–2013. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315590774.CrossRef

Duncan, S. E., & DeAvila, E. A. (1998). PreLAS. Monterey, CA: CTB/McGraw-Hill.

Duncan, G., Magnuson, K. A., & Ludwig, J. (2004). The endogeneity problem in developmental science. Research in Human Development, 1, 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2004.9683330.CrossRef

Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Examiner’s Manual for the PPVT-III: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Third Edition Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Ermisch, J., & Francesconi, M. (2000). The effect of parents’ employment on children’s educational attainment. Working Paper 2000–31. Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex. http://ftp.iza.org/dp215.pdf.

Flanagan, K., & West, J. (2004). Children Born in 2001: First Results from the Base Year of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS–B) (NCES2005–036). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Ginsburg, H., P., & Baroody, A. J. (2003) TEMA 3: Test of Early Mathematics Ability Third Edition. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Greenfield, P. M. (2017). Cultural change over time: Why replicability should not be the gold standard in psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5), 762–771. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617707314.CrossRefPubMed

Gregg, P., Washbrook, E., Propper, C., & Burgess, S. (2005). The effects of a mother’s return to work decision on child development in the UK. Economic Journal, 115, F48–F80.CrossRef

Gresham, F. M., Elliot, S. N., & Black, F. (1987). Teacher-rated social skills of mainstreamed mildly retarded and nonhandicapped children. School Psychology Review, 17, 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/073428298800600305.CrossRef

Han, W., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). The effects of early maternal employment on later cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 63(2), 336–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00336.x.CrossRef

Haskins, R. (2006). Work over welfare: the inside story of the 1996 welfare reform law. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.

Heinrich, C. J. (2014). Parents’ employment and children’s wellbeing. The Future of Children, 121–146. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23723386.

Hill, J. L., Waldfogel, J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Han, W. (2005). Maternal employment and child development: a fresh look using newer methods. Developmental Psychology, 41, 833–850. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.833.CrossRefPubMed

Hofferth, S. L. (1996). Child care in the United States today. Future of Children, 6(2), 41–61. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1602418.CrossRefPubMed

Hoffman, L. W. (1989). Effects of maternal employment in the two-parent family. American Psychologist, 44(2), 283–292. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.283.CrossRef

Holmes, E. K., Holladay, H. M., Hill, E. J., & Yorgason, J. B. (2018). Are mothers’ work-to-family conflict, school involvement, and work status related to academic achievement? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(6), 1881–1898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1021-8.CrossRef

Imbens, G. W. (2000). The role of the propensity score in estimating dose-response functions. Biometrika, 83, 706–710. https://doi.org/10.3386/t0237.CrossRef

Isaacs, J., Healy, O., & Peters, H. E. (2017). Paid family leave in the United States. Urban Institute. www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/90201/paid_family_leave.pdf.

Joshi, H., & Verropoulu, G. (2000). Maternal employment and child outcomes. www.smith-institute.org.uk/file/MaternalEmploymentandChildOutcomesAnalysisoftwoBirthCohortstudies.pdf.

Kalleberg, A. L. (2009). Precarious work, insecure workers: employment relations in transition. American Sociological Review, 74(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400101.CrossRef

Kamerman, S. B., & Gatenio-Gabel, S. (2007). Early childhood education and care in the United States: an overview of the current policy picture. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 1(1), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/2288-6729-1-1-23.CrossRef

Landivar, L. C., Ruppanner, L., Scarborough, W. J., & Collins, C. (2020). Early signs indicate that COVID-19 is exacerbating gender inequality in the labor force. Socius, 6, https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120947997.

Little, T. D., Jorgensen, T. D., Lang, K. M., & Moore, E. W. G. (2013). On the joys of missing data. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 7(4), 199–204. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jst048.CrossRef

Lombardi, C. M. (2021). Family income and mothers’ parenting quality: within-family associations from infancy to late childhood. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 105799 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105799.CrossRef

Lombardi, C. M., & Coley, R. L. (2014). Early maternal employment and children’s school readiness in contemporary families. Developmental Psychology, 50(8), 2071–2084. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037106.CrossRefPubMed

Lombardi, C. M., & Coley, R. L. (2017). Early maternal employment and children’s academic and behavioral skills in Australia and the United Kingdom. Child Development, 88(1), 263–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12588.CrossRefPubMed

Lonigan, C., Wagner, R., Torgesen, J., & Rashotte, C. (2002). Preschool Comprehensive Test of Phonological & Print Processing (Pre-CTOPPP). Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University.

Magnuson, K. & Waldfogel, J. (2016). Trends in income-related gaps in enrollment in early childhood education: 1968 to 2013. AERA Open, 2(2), 2332858416648933 https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858416648933.CrossRef

Mather, N. & Jaffe, L. E. (2002). Woodcock–Johnson III: Reports, recommendations, and strategies. New York, NY: Wiley.

McGrew, K. S., Werder, J. K., & Woodcock, R. W. (1990). WJ-R technical manual. Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.

Merrell, K. W. (2003). Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales—Second Edition . Austin, TX : PRO-ED.

NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1997). The effects of infant child care on infant-mother attachment security: results of the NICHD study of early child care. Child Development, 860–879. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1132038.

NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2003). Does amount of time spent in child care predict socioemotional adjustment during the transition to kindergarten? Child Development, 74, 976–1005. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00582.CrossRef

OECD. (2016). Maternal employment rates. www.oecd.org/els/family/LMF_1_2_Maternal_Employment.pdf.

Parcel, T. L. & Menaghan, E. G. (1997). Effects of low-wage employment on family well-being. The Future of Children, 7(1), 116–121. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1602583.CrossRefPubMed

Paternoster, R., Brame, R., Mazerolle, P., & Piquero, A. (1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36(4), 859–866. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01268.x.CrossRef

Perry‐Jenkins, M., & Gerstel, N. (2020). Work and family in the second decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 420–453. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12636.CrossRef

Pilkauskas, N. V., Amorim, M., & Dunifon, R. E. (2020). Historical trends in children living in multigenerational households in the United States: 1870–2018. Demography, 57(6), 2269–2296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-020-00920-5.CrossRefPubMed

Raver, C. C. (2003). Does work pay psychologically as well as economically? The role of employment in predicting depressive symptoms and parenting among low-income families. Child Development, 74, 1720–1736. https://doi.org/10.1086/386270.CrossRefPubMed

Ruhm, C. (2011). Policies to assist parents with young children. Future of Children, 21(2), 37–68. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2011.0015.CrossRefPubMed

Sayer, L. C., Bianchi, S. M., & Robinson, J. P. (2004). Are parents investing less in children? Trends in mothers’ and fathers’ time with children. American Journal of Sociology, 110(1), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00634.x.CrossRef

Seltzer, J. A. (2019). Family change and changing family demography. Demography, 56(2), 405–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00766-6.CrossRefPubMed

Taylor, P., Funk, C., & Clark, A. (2007). Fewer mothers prefer full-time work. Pew Research Center. www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2010/10/WomenWorking.pdf.

Teti, D. M., Cole, P. M., Cabrera, N., Goodman, S. H., & McLoyd, V. C. (2017). Supporting parents: How six decades of parenting research can inform policy and best practice. Social Policy Report, 30(5). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED581662.pdf.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2018). Employment characteristics of families – 2017. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf.

Von Hippel, P. T. (2007). Regression with missing Ys: an improved strategy for analyzing multiply imputed data. Sociological Methodology, 37, 83–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9531.2007.00180.x.CrossRef

Votruba-Drzal, E., Coley, R. L., Koury, A. S., & Miller, P. (2013). Center-based child care and cognitive skills development: Importance of timing and household resources. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 821–838. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032951.CrossRef

Waldfogel, J., Doran, E., & Pac, J. (2019). Paid family and medical leave improves the well-being of children and families. Child Evidence Brief, 5. https://www.srcd.org/research/briefs-fact-sheets/child-evidence-briefs.

Weeden, K. A., Cha, Y., & Bucca, M. (2016). Long work hours, part-time work, and trends in the gender gap in pay, the motherhood wage penalty, and the fatherhood wage premium. The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(4), 71–102. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2016.2.4.03.CrossRef

Woodcock, R. W., & Johnson, M. B. (1989). Woodcock-Johnson tests of cognitive ability. Chicago, IL: Riverside Publishing.

Titel: Early Maternal Employment And Children’s School Readiness: Changing Associations Over Time?
Publicatiedatum: 01-07-2022
Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Child and Family Studies / Uitgave 4/2023
Print ISSN: 1062-1024
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-2843
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02357-3

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Andere artikelen Uitgave 4/2023

How Work-Family Guilt, Involvement with Children and Spouse’s Support Influence Parents’ Life Satisfaction in a Context of Work-Family Conflict

Parenting Self-Efficacy and Internalizing/Externalizing Problems: Child Age as a Moderator

Self-Esteem, Socially Prescribed Perfectionism, and Parental Burnout

Early Child-care Arrangements and Both Parents’ Subjective Well-being

Trajectories of Change in Parental Self-Esteem and Emotion Regulation from Pregnancy until 4 Years Postpartum

On the Attribution of Parental Competence: Parents’ Behavior Matters, not Their Sexual Orientation