The Relationship Between Mindfulness and Impulsivity: The Role of Meditation

This study aimed to examine the relationship between mindfulness and impulsivity in a normative adult population, referring to the multifactorial structure of these two traits. As part of examining the relationship between mindfulness and impulsivity, the effect of meditation practice on this relationship was tested. To this end, the participants were divided into two groups, one that included those with experience in meditation practice and one that included those without experience in meditation practice. As previously mentioned, our primary measurement for assessing the mindfulness trait was the FMI questionnaire, while the MAAS questionnaire served as a supportive measure to bolster the obtained insights. Consequently, our discussion primarily centers on the FMI results, with a concise reference to the findings related to the MAAS.

Consistent with the first prediction, the results showed that both the FMI and the MAAS were negatively correlated with the BIS-11 total score and with the DII dysfunctional impulsivity subscale, suggesting that a high level of impulsivity is associated with a low level of mindfulness. Focusing on the FMI, there was a negative correlation with the attentional impulsivity subscale and a positive correlation with the DII functional impulsivity scale. These correlations may to some extent reflect the attentional functions that underlie both mindfulness and impulsivity traits. Specifically, attentional impulsivity (i.e., an inability to focus attention or concentrate; Stanford et al., 2009) was inversely associated with mindfulness. The same was the case for dysfunctional impulsivity, emphasizing the tendency to act with little forethought (Dickman, 1990), which was inversely associated with the ability to observe an experience without reacting. These findings strengthen the argument that mindfulness and impulsivity refer to attention characteristics that form a continuum, where the tendency to mindfulness with the ability to pay conscious attention and reflectivity is at one end and the tendency to impulsivity and low attentiveness and automatic thought processes is at the other end (De Wit, 2009; Herman, 2023; Maltais et al., 2020; Murphy & MacKillop, 2012).

In addition, the FMI was positively correlated with the functional aspect of impulsivity. This is presumably because of a common component of rapid processing of cognitive information in the “here and now,” which characterizes both mindfulness (Daniel et al., 2022; Hölzel et al., 2011; Jha et al., 2010) and functional impulsivity (Brunas-Wagstaff et al., 1994; Dickman, 1990) and allows for an optimal and adaptive response. According to Brown et al. (2009), mindfulness is not deliberative in nature; it involves the simple acts of observing without scrutiny, making comparisons, or evaluating events and experiences and is thus dissimilar to “self-awareness” or reflexive consciousness in other forms (Béres, 2009; De Verlaine, 2022). Mindfulness concerns non-interference with experience, suspending the categorical judgments that typically follow every perception rather quickly and thus is not a cold, cognitive process (Kotzé & Nel, 2016; Terres-Barcala et al., 2022; Walach et al., 2006). It is plausible, therefore, that the FMI measures aspects of mindfulness, such as openness to experience and a non-judgmental and accepting attitude (e.g., “I am open to the experience of the present moment”; “When I notice an absence of mind, I gently return to the experience”), which converge with functional impulsivity (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001), resulting in a positive association between them. Specifically, attention and awareness of the present, including reactivity to these experiences, depend on various attentional factors, among them signals, especially rewards or threats, that can attract one’s attention involuntarily (Suelmann et al., 2018). Having a prepared behavioral pattern at one’s disposal that gets executed in an automatic, reflex-like manner enables quick and efficient responses. These response patterns indicate a high-level preparedness to perform a desired action, and it can be based on learned automaticity created through repeated execution of a behavior in response to a trigger. With increased repetition, the cognitive effort required to decide on a behavior or movement and to implement it diminishes, transforming the response over time from a deliberate action into an overlearned habit. Or that the automatic attentional process can be based on keeping instructions on how to deal with an arising task or challenge in mind, one can execute the appropriate behavior rapidly without having to have learned it through repeated execution (Maran et al., 2021).

This suggests that elements capable of drawing one’s attention may exist unconsciously and be present in both impulsivity and mindfulness in an adaptive manner. Also, self-report-based mindfulness scales tend to reduce mindfulness to specific qualities that may be associated with it, but which may also be attributed to other states and/or traits (such as impulsivity) and do not capture the phenomenon, such as the ability to maintain attention or to be emotionally nonreactive (Frank & Marken, 2022).

In contrast to our second prediction, no mediating effect was observed on this relationship using the FMI. It is worth noting that, in the case of the MAAS, meditation practice emerged as a weaker predictor, compared to impulsivity scales. Furthermore, there was an interaction between meditation practice and non-planning impulsivity, indicating a significant negative correlation between non-planning impulsivity and the MAAS in the non-meditation group, but this correlation was not evident in the meditation group. This finding aligns with concerns about the content validity of the MAAS and supports the argument that the assessment of attentional lapses on the MAAS, along with response bias to items related to “mindfulness absent,” may encompass aspects of experience that significantly diverge from the qualities associated with mindfulness-based practices (e.g., Grossman, 2011).

Returning to the findings regarding the FMI, the absence of a mediating role of meditation practice in the relationship between impulsivity and mindfulness traits underscores the necessity to distinguish between reflexivity and mindfulness meditation. While mindfulness meditation involves the cultivation of awareness and attention to the present moment by observing and distancing oneself from thoughts and emotional reactions (decentering) as they occur (Chambers et al., 2008; Keng et al., 2011; Krishnakumar & Robinson, 2015; Peters et al., 2011), it does not aim to improve past events or prepare for future experiences (De Verlaine, 2022). Instead, for an effective response, mindfulness practice emphasizes embracing the present moment, letting go of current situations, focusing on breathing, maintaining a still position, and making minimal concentrated efforts (De Verlaine, 2022). This aspect of mindfulness may align more closely with a reflective practice.

In contrast, reflexive practice focuses on self-transformation and the generation of knowledge that extends beyond specific situations, fostering self-monitoring awareness and the ability to be both aware and critical about ongoing reflective improvement and adjustment' (Béres, 2009; McCaw, 2023). The absence of a moderating effect of mindfulness meditation in this study may indicate that cultivating reflexive processes within mindfulness training could be beneficial in disrupting the typical thinking–feeling–acting pattern associated with trait impulsivity (Franco et al., 2016; Lattimore et al., 2011). Reflexivity, a key aspect of metacognition, entails reflecting on one's thoughts, emotions, actions, and experiences and critically analyzing them from various perspectives, leading to a deeper understanding of one's internal cognitive dynamics and behavioral tendencies (Béres, 2009; Maran et al., 2021; McCaw, 2023; Smolka & Fisher, 2024; Vu & Burton, 2020). This heightened self-awareness, combined with self-transformation and analytical thought, may empower individuals to consciously adjust their thinking strategies and behaviors to improve learning outcomes (McCaw, 2023; Smolka & Fisher, 2024).

While impulsive automated behaviors can hinder individuals from adjusting their reactions as needed, engaging in mindful reflexivity meditation has the potential to impact attention regulation and metacognition. This practice helps to overcome habituation and achieve de-automatization, thereby facilitating sustained de-centered observation during mindfulness meditation (Maran et al., 2021). This, in turn, could lead to a more significant decrease in impulsivity and foster gradual enhancement of trait mindfulness over time (Kiken et al., 2015; McCaw, 2023; Sappio et al., 2023).

Relatedly, mindfulness meditation practice emerged as the stronger predictor of higher levels of mindfulness, as assessed by the FMI, in comparison to the impulsivity scales, with the exception of attentional impulsivity. This suggests that engaging in mindfulness practice might have a more pronounced impact on individuals’ levels of mindfulness components of nonjudgmental present-moment observation as well as openness to experience, and it may be indicative that it encompasses and promotes these components. Conversely, attentional impulsivity emerged as a more potent predictor for low levels of mindfulness in comparison to the impact of meditation practice. Specifically, the distinction between the focus attention component of impulsivity (e.g., “I don’t pay attention”) and mindfulness (e.g., “When I notice an absence of mind, I gently return to the experience of the here and now”) underscores the notion that challenges in maintaining attention may indeed hinder one’s capacity for mindful awareness of the present moment (Peters et al., 2011). However, this observation prompts contemplation on whether the “letting go” of distractions and the adoption of a minimized concentrating effort, as advocated by mindfulness meditation, are less effective in enhancing this specific facet of attentional mindfulness. It also raises the question of whether incorporating reflexive processes that encourage the examination of past experiences and future outcomes in mindfulness training (McCaw, 2023) would be more efficient in addressing attentional impulsivity. Reflexivity processes that promote a metacognitive distance and self-monitoring awareness may contribute to improving attentional control, a deficiency often associated with impulsivity (Parisi et al., 2023).

Continuing this line of reasoning, it is important to consider that meditation practice may affect participants differently and that its impact may vary among individuals. Meditation does not necessarily work in the same way for everyone, and individual characteristics such as well-being, mental health, physical health conditions, lifestyle factors, and psychological traits, should be taken into account as potential sources of variability in the response to meditation (see Buric et al., 2022; Warren et al., 2023). Furthermore, our study revealed age as a predictor of increased trait mindfulness, consistent with previous research findings (Fisher et al., 2022; Hut et al., 2021; Mahlo & Windsor, 2021). This age-related enhancement in mindfulness is likely attributable to the developmental improvement of cognitive and executive functioning associated with age, factors closely linked to higher trait mindfulness (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; MacAulay et al., 2022). However, we observed that the influence of age on trait mindfulness diminished when impulsivity trait and mindfulness practice variables were entered in the moderation analysis. While age may initially contribute to increased trait mindfulness, its influence diminishes when considering other factors such as impulsivity trait and mindfulness practice. This suggests that age, as a predictor of increased trait mindfulness, is influenced by individual differences in impulsivity and engagement in mindfulness practices, making the relationship complex. In other words, younger individuals who practice mindfulness and have lower impulsivity may exhibit levels of trait mindfulness comparable to older individuals. This highlights the importance of adopting a multifaceted approach when studying mindfulness predictors.

Looking at the differences between individuals with and without meditation practice experience in mindfulness and impulsivity traits, our third prediction was partially supported. In accordance with the prediction, the findings showed that participants with meditation practice were higher in trait mindfulness than those without meditation practice.

This supports the notion that mindfulness meditation practice encompasses and fosters trait mindfulness (Alhawatmeh et al., 2022; Himichi et al., 2021; Karl & Fischer, 2022; Kiken et al., 2015; Thiermann & Sheate, 2022), involving sustained attention to one’s ongoing sensory, cognitive, and emotional experience, without giving in to the natural tendency to react, elaborate, or evaluate (Bishop et al., 2004; Keng et al., 2011; Papies et al., 2012).

Regarding impulsivity, however, the findings obtained were mixed, namely, significant differences were observed between the two groups on the attentional and non-planning impulsivity subscales. For attentional impulsivity, the meditation practice group had a significantly lower score than the no-meditation group. This is in line with the prevailing claim in studies, according to which people with meditation experience, compared to those with no experience, have an improved ability to concentrate and maintain attention (Chen et al., 2022; Chimiklis et al., 2018; Gill et al., 2020; Goldberg et al., 2020; Lodha & Gupta, 2022; Sleimen-Malkoun et al., 2023). These are often considered to be weak and inadequate among those with high trait impulsivity (Korponay et al., 2019). In contrast, the non-planning impulsivity score was higher in the group with meditation practice than in the group without meditation experience. This finding is supported by the study of Korponay et al. (2019), which showed that adult participants with experience in meditation practice had higher levels of non-planning impulsivity than those without experience in meditation practice. The researchers concluded that these participants resorted to meditation practice to reduce their levels of impulsivity.

Planning is a cognitive process that involves setting a predetermined course of action to achieve a goal and continuously monitoring the execution until the goal (Hayes-Roth & Hayes-Roth, 1979; Mumford et al., 2017; Unterrainer & Owen, 2006). Thus, it is possible that the participants in the current study turned to meditation precisely because of their difficulties in planning ahead and their desire to overcome the tendency to act according to immediate rewards without considering future results. That is, they would meditate as a form of psychological “self-therapy” for self-improvement (Graham & Lewis, 2021; Wittmann et al., 2015), aiming to enhance their planning abilities.

Expending on this notion, mindfulness meditation strengthens the capacity to observe and accept thoughts, feelings, and behaviors without judgment, fostering self-understanding and potentially facilitating subsequent self-transformation processes (Matey, 2024). This heightened awareness enables individuals to recognize and address automatic patterns of thought and behavior, promoting personal growth and transformation (Herman, 2023; McCaw, 2023).

This explanation requires further investigation because it relates to a specific component of impulsivity, and it is unclear why this does not apply to the other components of impulsivity. It is possible that the differences found regarding attentional impulsivity were due to the fact that this component is affected by the practice of meditation in a relatively short time, most likely because the practice of mindfulness meditation acts directly and mainly on attention and concentration (Carter et al., 2005; Ivanovski & Malhi, 2007; Norris et al., 2018).

This is in contrast to the planning and foresight component, which involves multiple cognitive steps, including determining a course of action in advance to achieve a future goal along with continuous monitoring of the execution until the goal is achieved (Hayes-Roth & Hayes-Roth, 1979; Jurado & Rosselli, 2007), and may require a longer period of meditation practice before change can be seen. In this context, the cumulative duration of experience in meditation practice in the present sample was low to moderate relative to the cumulative duration of participants defined as having much experience in meditation in other studies in the field (e.g., Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2012, 2017; Wittmann et al., 2015).

Additionally, variations in interpretation of certain items on the BIS-11 scale among individuals with meditation experience may contribute to discrepancies in findings, reflecting different mental processes at different levels of training. By recognizing subtle, habitual facets of lived experience that often elude conscious awareness, such as patterns of cognitive and emotional reactivity, meditation cultivates the ability to direct attention to the unfolding stream of experience in the present moment (McCaw, 2023).