Introduction
The Current Study
Method
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Search Strategy
Author(s) Pub. year | Focus |
N
a
| n (absent)b | n (non-absent)c | % Boysd | #Risk factors | #Child factors | #Family factors | #School factors | #Peer factors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alexander et al. 1997 | Absenteeism | 493–621 | 194–248 | 297–373 | 45.58 | 31 | 3 | 14 | 14 | 0 |
Aloise-Young et al. 2002 | Dropout | 2203 | 1213 | 990 | 54.23 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Archambault et al. 2009 | Absenteeism | 11827 | – | – | 44.60 | 32 | 4 | 0 | 28 | 0 |
Attwood and Croll 2006 | Absenteeism | 337–344 | 32–33 | 304–311 | 52.51 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 |
Bask and Salmela-Aro 2013 | Dropout | 878 | 116 | 762 | – | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Battin-Pearson et al. 2002 | Dropout | 770 | 88 | 682 | 50.99 | 34 | 12 | 6 | 12 | 6 |
Birkett et al. 2014 | Absenteeism | 27820–29169 | 1725–1838 | 26095–27331 | 0/100 | 14 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Blondal and Adalbjarnardottir 2014 | Dropout | 835 | 241 | 594 | 46.00 | 28 | 2 | 17 | 9 | 0 |
Blodgett and Lanigan 2018 | Absenteeism | 2101 | 270 | 1831 | 50.00 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Bobakova et al. 2015 | Absenteeism | 1380 | 117 | 1263 | 49.70 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Borgna and Struffolino 2017 | Dropout | 1508–5233 | 612–759 | 896–4474 | 50.50/55.90 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Bosker and Hofman 1994 | Dropout | 2523 | 166 | 2357 | – | 21 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 4 |
Breuner et al. 2004 | Absenteeism | 233–270 | 106–123 | 127–147 | 38.64 | 18 | 17 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Bryk and Thum 1989 | Absenteeism/Dropout | 160–4450 | – | – | – | 52 | 10 | 2 | 40 | 0 |
Burton et al. 2014 | Absenteeism | 108 | 29 | 79 | 29.00 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Christle et al. 2007 | Dropout | 196 | – | – | 50.90 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 0 |
Claes et al. 2009 | Absenteeism | 810–3470 | 513 | 297–2957 | 48.40 | 26 | 0 | 14 | 12 | 0 |
(2) Torney-Purta et al 2001 | ||||||||||
Corville-Smith et al. 1998 | Absenteeism | 54 | 27 | 27 | 29.63 | 11 | 3 | 5 | 2 | 1 |
Cratty 2012 | Dropout | 68401 | 13188 | 55213 | 48.94 | 18 | 8 | 4 | 6 | 0 |
Duncan et al. 2017 | Absenteeism | 3112 | 338 | 2775 | 50.50 | 9 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Dupéré et al. 2017 | Dropout | 362 | 183 | 179 | 52.29 | 30 | 6 | 8 | 16 | 0 |
Eaton et al. 2008 | Absenteeism | 2741 | 1015 | 1726 | 43.40 | 59 | 57 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Echeverria et al. 2014 | Absenteeism | 93320 | 5546 | 87774 | 50.70 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Egger et al. 2003 | Absenteeism | 1422 | – | – | 55.60 | 11 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Ensminger et al. 1996 | Dropout | 1296 | 291 | 1005 | 49.03 | 9 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 0 |
(2) Ensminger and Slusarcick 1992 | ||||||||||
Epstein and Sheldon 2002 | Absenteeism | 12 | – | – | – | 15 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 0 |
Fall and Roberts 2012 | Dropout | 14781 | 786 | 13995 | 49.40 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 0 |
Fernandez-Suarez et al. 2016 | Dropout | 252–264 | 121–128 | 131–136 | 80.74 | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Flisher and Chalton 1995 | Dropout | 400 | 68 | 332 | 50.12 | 32 | 30 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Fortin et al. 2010 | Dropout | 102–154 | 16–50 | 86–104 | 0/100 | 54 | 10 | 14 | 22 | 8 |
Gastic 2008 | Absenteeism | 1578 | 199–290 | 1288–1379 | 53.20 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Gleason and Dynarski 2002 | Dropout | 2568–2615 | 154–382 | 2233–2414 | 53.00 | 35 | 10 | 10 | 15 | 0 |
(2) Gleason and Dynarski 1994 | ||||||||||
Hancock et al. 2018 | Absenteeism | 5231 | 544 | 4687 | 61.00 | 23 | 6 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
Hagborg et al. 2018 | Absenteeism | 1147–1240 | 39–132 | 1108 | 49.32 | 42 | 10 | 20 | 12 | 0 |
Henry 2007 | Absenteeism | 5429–5684 | 597–890 | 4539–5087 | 47.30/48.50 | 50 | 16 | 20 | 14 | 0 |
Hickman et al. 2008 | Dropout | 119 | 59 | 60 | 50.80 | 28 | 3 | 0 | 25 | 0 |
Hughes et al. 2018 | Dropout | 735 | – | – | 52.70 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Hunt and Hopko 2009 | Absenteeism | 367 | 255 | 112 | 42.00 | 30 | 15 | 13 | 1 | 1 |
Hysing et al. 2015 | Absenteeism | 8347 | – | – | 46.50 | 11 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Ingul and Nordahl 2013 | Absenteeism | 94–716 | 21–80 | 73–636 | 47.70 | 27 | 19 | 3 | 2 | 3 |
Ingul et al. 2012 | Absenteeism | 308–610 | 101–103 | 207–507 | 47.70 | 46 | 29 | 10 | 6 | 2 |
Janosz et al. 1997 | Dropout | 791 | 172–335 | 456–619 | 46.40/55.37 | 92 | 44 | 24 | 12 | 12 |
Jenkins 1995 | Absenteeism | 754 | – | – | 50.00 | 13 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 0 |
Jimerson et al. 2000 | Dropout | 143 | 43 | 100 | 55.24 | 17 | 3 | 6 | 5 | 3 |
Keppens and Spruyt 2015 | Absenteeism | 3884 | 198 | 3686 | – | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Lloyd 1978 | Dropout | 774–788 | 143–196 | 592–631 | 0/100 | 36 | 2 | 10 | 24 | 0 |
Lounsbury et al. 2004 | Absenteeism | 248–321 | – | – | 46.00/48.00/53.00 | 27 | 27 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Mounteney et al. 2010 | Absenteeism | 3809 | 107 | 3702 | 51.06 | 28 | 23 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Morrow and Villodas 2017 | Dropout | 728 | – | – | 44.00 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Mullvain 2017 | Absenteeism | 49 | – | – | – | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 |
Peguero et al 2016 | Dropout | 2550–5950 | 306–714 | 2244–5236 | 48.00/50.00 | 12 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Quiroga et al. 2012 | Dropout | 453 | 308 | 145 | 52.50 | 11 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 1 |
Ramberg et al. 2019 | Absenteeism | 4956 | 1160 | 3296 | 47.10 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
Ramirez et al. 2012 | Absenteeism | 27110 | 10163 | 16947 | 48.38 | 10 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Reid 1984 | Absenteeism | 154 | 77 | 77 | – | 36 | 10 | 6 | 20 | 0 |
(2) Reid 1981 | ||||||||||
Rousseau-Salvador et al. 2014 | Absenteeism | 37–167 | 12–61 | 25–106 | 45,58 | 8 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Rumberger 1995 | Dropout | 17242 | – | – | 50.00 | 34 | 12 | 10 | 10 | 2 |
Rumberger et al. 1990 | Dropout | 96–114 | 48–66 | 48 | 48.20 | 20 | 10 | 4 | 6 | 0 |
Sälzer et al. 2012 | Absenteeism | 3491 | – | – | 50.00 | 9 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 0 |
Sapharas et al. 2016 | Dropout | 1689–1761 | 158–288 | 1473–1531 | 0/100 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Schwartz et al. 2009 | Absenteeism | 40 | – | – | 37.50 | 21 | 17 | 1 | 3 | 0 |
Sommer 1985 | Absenteeism | 18–50 | 9–25 | 9–25 | 0/64.00/100 | 16 | 2 | 7 | 7 | 0 |
Steinhausen et al. 2008 | Absenteeism | 89–244 | 41–154 | 48–90 | – | 54 | 30 | 12 | 8 | 4 |
Sznitman et al. 2017 | Dropout | 3604–13262 | 901–3846 | 2703–9416 | 49.68/51.39 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Taylor 2009 | Absenteeism | 131 | – | – | – | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Teuscher and Makarova 2018 | Absenteeism | 220 | – | – | 52.10 | 7 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
Trampush et al. 2009 | Dropout | 44–49 | 24–32 | 17–20 | 91.40 | 10 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 0 |
Vaughn et al. 2013 | Absenteeism | 17125–18443 | 376–1694 | 16749 | 51.00 | 66 | 40 | 14 | 12 | 0 |
Veenstra et al. 2010 | Absenteeism | 1675 | 109 | 1566 | – | 9 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 1 |
Vitaro et al. 2001 | Dropout | 751 | 134 | 617 | 100 | 7 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
Zhang et al. 2007 | Absenteeism | 4745–12464 | 588–1725 | 4157–10739 | 64.75 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Study Coding
Calculation of Effect Sizes and Statistical Analyses
Assessment of Bias
Results
Overall Effects of Risk Domains for School Absenteeism
Domain of risk factors | # Studies | # ES | Mean z (SE) | 95% CI | Sig. mean z (p) | % Var. at level 1 | Level 2 variance | % Var. at level 2 | Level 3 variance | % Var. at level 3 | Mean r |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child domains (#24) | |||||||||||
Having a negative school attitude | 11 | 72 | 0.553 (0.222) | (0.110, 0.996) | <0.001*** | 0.0 | 0.003*** | 0.6 | 0.536*** | 99.4 | 0.503a |
Anti-social behavior/cognitions | 19 | 53 | 0.457 (0.180) | (0.096, 0.818) | 0.014* | 0.0 | 0.018*** | 3.0 | 0.604*** | 97.0 | 0.428a |
Low academic self-concept | 3 | 5 | 0.418 (0.189) | (−0.105, 0.942) | 0.091+ | 1.9 | 0.033*** | 28.6 | 0.079 | 69.6 | 0.395 |
Smoking | 2 | 9 | 0.350 (0.048) | (0.239, 0.461) | <0.001*** | 1.4 | 0.021*** | 98.6 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.336a |
Drug abuse | 7 | 24 | 0.340 (0.069) | (0.196, 0.483) | <0.001*** | 0.5 | 0.011*** | 27.7 | 0.028* | 71.8 | 0.327a |
Alcohol abuse | 7 | 35 | 0.322 (0.026) | (0.270, 0.375) | <0.001*** | 1.1 | 0.023*** | 98.9 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.311a |
Other internalizing problems | 11 | 33 | 0.317 (0.122) | (0.068, 0.565) | 0.014* | 0.9 | 0.008*** | 5.0 | 0.156*** | 94.0 | 0.307a |
Psychiatric symptoms/disorders | 5 | 7 | 0.313 (0.047) | (0.198, 0.428) | <0.001*** | 20.4 | 0.003 | 29.2 | 0.005 | 50.5 | 0.303a |
Being a sexual minority | 2 | 7 | 0.280 (0.079) | (0.086, 0.474) | 0.012* | 0.3 | 0.005*** | 36.9 | 0.008 | 62.8 | 0.273a |
Delinquent behavior | 7 | 20 | 0.258 (0.139) | (−0.032, 0.549) | 0.079+ | 0.1 | 0.019*** | 13.4 | 0.123** | 86.5 | 0.252 |
Depression | 8 | 13 | 0.242 (0.032) | (0.173, 0.311) | <0.001*** | 5.8 | 0.008*** | 94.2 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.237b |
Low academic achievement | 11 | 22 | 0.236 (0.049) | (0.135, 0.337) | <0.001*** | 1.0 | 0.024*** | 72.4 | 0.009 | 26.5 | 0.232b |
High sexual involvement | 2 | 8 | 0.233 (0.064) | (0.081, 0.384) | 0.008** | 1.2 | 0.032*** | 98.8 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.229b |
Showing risky behavior | 2 | 8 | 0.230 (0.067) | (0.073, 0.388) | 0.011* | 0.9 | 0.003*** | 28.1 | 0.008* | 71.0 | 0.226b |
Poor physical health | 10 | 57 | 0.180 (0.042) | (0.097, 0.264) | <0.001*** | 0.8 | 0.010*** | 42.5 | 0.013*** | 56.7 | 0.178b |
Risky coping/personality profile | 7 | 34 | 0.159 (0.020) | (0.117, 0.200) | <0.001*** | 28.9 | 0.010*** | 71.1 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.158c |
Not being religious | 2 | 3 | 0.142 (0.040) | (−0.031, 0.316) | 0.072+ | 7.4 | 0.004*** | 92.6 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.141 |
Age (being older) | 12 | 17 | 0.127 (0.029) | (0.065, 0.189) | <0.001*** | 4.5 | 0.003*** | 26.8 | 0.006 | 68.7 | 0.126c |
Anxiety | 9 | 25 | 0.116 (0.047) | (0.018, 0.214) | 0.022* | 3.5 | 0.007*** | 33.8 | 0.013*** | 62.7 | 0.115c |
High impact/negative life events | 4 | 8 | 0.112 (0.062) | (−0.033, 0.258) | 0.111 | 0.9 | 0.026*** | 99.1 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.112 |
History of grade retention
| 1 | 1 | 0.100 (0.017) | (0.068, 0.132) | <0.001*** | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.100c |
Low IQ/learning difficulties | 5 | 6 | 0.099 (0.033) | (0.014, 0.184) | <0.001*** | 5.0 | 0.005 | 95.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.099c |
Negative or no leisure activities | 4 | 10 | 0.081 (0.084) | (−0.110, 0.271) | 0.364 | 7.0 | 0.005* | 16.2 | 0.024* | 76.8 | 0.081 |
Having a job | 2 | 6 | 0.071 (0.096) | (−0.177, 0.319) | 0.494 | 0.5 | 0.005*** | 21.2 | 0.017* | 78.3 | 0.071 |
Ethnicity (being non-white) | 15 | 36 | 0.024 (0.030) | (−0.037, 0.086) | 0.431 | 0.6 | 0.006*** | 43.4 | 0.008+ | 56.0 | 0.024 |
Family domains (#11) | |||||||||||
Low parental school involvement | 4 | 12 | 0.279 (0.108) | (0.042, 0.516) | 0.025* | 0.3 | 0.001*** | 1.2 | 0.045*** | 98.5 | 0.272a |
History of child abuse victimization | 4 | 19 | 0.263 (0.023) | (0.214, 0.312) | <0.001*** | 8.6 | 0.009*** | 91.4 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.257a |
Low attachment to parent
| 1 | 1 | 0.224 (0.024) | (0.175, 0.264) | <0.001*** | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.220b |
Large family size | 2 | 2 | 0.197 (0.120) | (−1.323, 1.717) | 0.348 | 35.6 | 0.010 | 32.2 | 0.010 | 32.2 | 0.194 |
Family structure (no nuclear family) | 11 | 24 | 0.189 (0.046) | (0.093, 0.285) | <0.001*** | 0.5 | 0.050*** | 99.5 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.187b |
Parental mental/physical problems | 1 | 3 | 0.188 (0.040) | (0.017, 0.360) | 0.042* | 4.0 | 0.005*** | 96.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.186b |
Low parental support/acceptance | 4 | 12 | 0.184 (0.027) | (0.124, 0.245) | <0.001*** | 10.1 | 0.005*** | 89.9 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.182b |
Low parental education | 6 | 17 | 0.156 (0.041) | (0.068, 0.243) | 0.002** | 2.2 | 0.011*** | 74.6 | 0.004 | 23.2 | 0.155c |
Ineffective family systems | 6 | 15 | 0.154 (0.071) | (0.001, 0.306) | 0.049* | 7.1 | 0.002 | 6.7 | 0.024** | 86.3 | 0.153c |
Low family SES | 20 | 50 | 0.135 (0.047) | (0.042, 0.229) | 0.005** | 0.8 | 0.010*** | 23.7 | 0.033*** | 75.4 | 0.134c |
Low parental control | 6 | 16 | 0.124 (0.028) | (0.064, 0.184) | <0.001*** | 3.1 | 0.004*** | 61.8 | 0.002 | 35.1 | 0.123c |
Sibling at school | 1 | 2 | 0.065 (0.035) | (−0.382, 0.512) | 0.315 | 53.8 | 0.001 | 46.2 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.065 |
Parental absenteeism in past
| 1 | 1 | 0.000 (0.200) | (−0.373, 0.373) | 1.000 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.000 |
School domains (#6) | |||||||||||
Distance to school (short) | 1 | 3 | 0.518 (0.228) | (−0.464, 1.500) | 0.151 | 71.1 | 0.045 | 28.9 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.476 |
Poor pupil-teacher relationship | 6 | 9 | 0.294 (0.057) | (0.163, 0.425) | <0.001*** | 1.6 | 0.007*** | 33.9 | 0.013 | 64.5 | 0.286a |
education/education | 6 | 21 | 0.233 (0.094) | (0.037, 0.429) | 0.022* | 1.6 | 0.007*** | 13.2 | 0.047*** | 85.2 | 0.229b |
Negative school/class climate | 8 | 26 | 0.185 (0.028) | (0.128, 0.242) | <0.001*** | 3.6 | 0.018*** | 96.4 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.183b |
Public school (vs. private) | 1 | 2 | 0.098 (0.062) | (−0.688, 0.885) | 0.358 | 9.9 | 0.007** | 90.1 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.098 |
Large classes/schools | 3 | 6 | 0.044 (0.110) | (−0.240, 0.328) | 0.709 | 10.3 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.027* | 89.7 | 0.044 |
Peer domains (#3) | |||||||||||
Having many friends | 2 | 3 | 0.204 (0.149) | (−0.437, 0.846) | 0.304 | 18.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.038 | 82.0 | 0.201 |
Poor social competence | 7 | 10 | 0.106 (0.062) | (−0.034, 0.247) | 0.120 | 9.1 | 0.032*** | 90.9 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.106 |
No subculture affiliation
| 1 | 1 | 0.060 (0.027) | (0.008, 0.112) | 0.013* | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.060c |
Being bullied | 5 | 7 | 0.011 (0.105) | (−0.246, 0.269) | 0.919 | 3.5 | 0.001 | 2.9 | 0.048* | 93.6 | 0.011 |
Overall Effects of Risk Domains for Dropout
Domain of risk factors | # Studies | # ES | Mean z (SE) | 95% CI | Sig. mean z (p) | % Var. at level 1 | Level 2 variance | % Var. at level 2 | Level 3 variance | % Var. at level 3 | Mean r |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child domains (#23) | |||||||||||
History of grade retention | 10 | 18 | 0.363 (0.051) | (0.257, 0.470) | <0.001*** | 0.3 | 0.020*** | 63.9 | 0.011+ | 35.8 | 0.348a |
Low IQ/learning difficulties | 8 | 12 | 0.338 (0.070) | (0.184, 0.491) | <0.001*** | 1.7 | 0.053*** | 98.3 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.326a |
Low academic achievement | 21 | 92 | 0.327 (0.033) | (0.260, 0.393) | <0.001*** | 2.7 | 0.022*** | 60.5 | 0.013** | 36.8 | 0.316a |
Psychiatric symptoms/disorders | 2 | 4 | 0.276 (0.042) | (0.142, 0.411) | 0.007** | 1.1 | 0.001*** | 30.9 | 0.003 | 68.0 | 0.269b |
Drug abuse | 5 | 9 | 0.252 (0.054) | (0.128, 0.376) | 0.002** | 10.7 | 0.016*** | 78.2 | 0.002 | 11.1 | 0.247b |
Anti-social behavior/cognitions | 14 | 35 | 0.241 (0.038) | (0.163, 0.319) | <0.001*** | 3.0 | 0.008*** | 32.5 | 0.015*** | 64.5 | 0.236b |
Delinquent behavior | 3 | 10 | 0.227 (0.027) | (0.167, 0.287) | <0.001*** | 50.1 | 0.000 | 12.2 | 0.001 | 37.8 | 0.223b |
Low academic self-concept | 4 | 8 | 0.221 (0.101) | (−0.018, 0.461) | 0.056+ | 0.8 | 0.003+ | 7.4 | 0.038* | 91.8 | 0.217 |
Poor general well-being
| 1 | 1 | 0.214 (0.020) | (0.173, 0.247) | <0.001*** | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.210b |
Having a negative school attitude | 11 | 50 | 0.213 (0.028) | (0.157, 0.269) | <0.001*** | 1.0 | 0.021*** | 85.9 | 0.003 | 13.1 | 0.210b |
Age (Being older) | 4 | 7 | 0.198 (0.044) | (0.091, 0.304) | 0.004** | 12.9 | 0.010** | 87.1 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.195b |
Adverse childhood experiences
| 1 | 1 | 0.187 (0.037) | (0.116, 0.256) | <0.001*** | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.185c |
High sexual involvement | 3 | 6 | 0.172 (0.098) | (−0.079, 0.423) | 0.139 | 2.3 | 0.056*** | 97.7 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.170 |
Poor physical health | 4 | 7 | 0.158 (0.045) | (0.048, 0.268) | 0.013* | 1.2 | 0.014*** | 98.8 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.157c |
Other internalizing problems | 4 | 10 | 0.141 (0.039) | (0.052, 0.230) | 0.006*** | 12.3 | 0.004*** | 41.7 | 0.004+ | 45.9 | 0.140c |
Smoking | 2 | 3 | 0.126 (0.295) | (−1.143, 1.394) | 0.712 | 0.4 | 0.018*** | 10.4 | 0.159 | 89.2 | 0.125 |
Not being religious | 1 | 2 | 0.113 (0.025) | (−0.207, 0.433) | 0.140 | 100.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.113 |
Showing risky behavior | 1 | 14 | 0.109 (0.040) | (0.023, 0.195) | 0.017* | 11.4 | 0.020*** | 88.6 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.109c |
Alcohol abuse | 2 | 5 | 0.101 (0.214) | (−0.495, 0.696) | 0.664 | 3.0 | 0.001 | 0.8 | 0.089** | 96.3 | 0.101 |
Having a job | 1 | 2 | 0.088 (0.025) | (−0.232, 0.408) | 0.178 | 100.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.088 |
Negative or no leisure activities | 5 | 11 | 0.084 (0.047) | (−0.020, 0.188) | 0.101 | 2.6 | 0.004*** | 35.6 | 0.007 | 61.8 | 0.084 |
Depression | 2 | 4 | 0.069 (0.055) | (−0.105, 0.244) | 0.296 | 34.2 | 0.008* | 65.8 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.069 |
Ethnicity (being non-white) | 13 | 56 | 0.062 (0.025) | (0.012, 0.112) | 0.017* | 0.4 | 0.018*** | 87.2 | 0.003 | 12.3 | 0.062c |
Risky coping/personality profile | 5 | 20 | 0.057 (0.034) | (−0.014, 0.129) | 0.110 | 3.7 | 0.021*** | 96.3 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.057 |
Anxiety | 2 | 3 | 0.009 (0.022) | (−0.086, 0.105) | 0.719 | 100.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.009 |
Family domains (#12) | |||||||||||
Low family SES | 16 | 34 | 0.226 (0.044) | (0.137, 0.316) | <0.001*** | 1.1 | 0.010*** | 28.0 | 0.024*** | 70.9 | 0.222b |
Low parental education | 10 | 20 | 0.203 (0.040) | (0.120, 0.286) | <0.001*** | 1.0 | 0.003*** | 17.7 | 0.013*** | 81.4 | 0.200b |
Large family size | 3 | 4 | 0.197 (0.042) | (0.065, 0.329) | 0.018* | 18.9 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.004+ | 81.1 | 0.194b |
Ineffective family systems | 3 | 6 | 0.182 (0.101) | (−0.078, 0.442) | 0.131 | 3.7 | 0.024*** | 56.6 | 0.017 | 39.6 | 0.180 |
Family structure (no nuclear family) | 8 | 18 | 0.180 (0.024) | (0.130, 0.230) | <0.001*** | 5.1 | 0.008*** | 94.9 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.178c |
Low parental support/acceptance | 8 | 16 | 0.178 (0.051) | (0.068, 0.288) | 0.004** | 2.3 | 0.012*** | 47.8 | 0.013+ | 49.9 | 0.176c |
Poor parent-child relationship | 4 | 9 | 0.165 (0.116) | (−0.102 0.432) | 0.191 | 5.3 | 0.002 | 3.1 | 0.047** | 91.6 | 0.164 |
Age of mother (being younger)
| 1 | 1 | 0.164 (0.043) | (0.081, 0.243) | <0.001*** | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.163c |
Low parental school involvement | 7 | 25 | 0.150 (0.040) | (0.069, 0.232) | <0.001*** | 1.6 | 0.010*** | 56.8 | 0.007* | 41.6 | 0.149c |
Low parental control | 8 | 21 | 0.135 (0.059) | (0.013, 0.258) | 0.032* | 3.2 | 0.004*** | 13.6 | 0.023*** | 83.1 | 0.134c |
Sibling dropped out | 1 | 2 | 0.122 (0.054) | (−0.560, 0.804) | 0.264 | 6.7 | 0.005*** | 93.3 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.121 |
Parental alcohol use | 1 | 2 | 0.071 (0.025) | (−0.249, 0.391) | 0.216 | 100.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.071 |
History of child abuse victimization | 2 | 4 | 0.035 (0.041) | (−0.094, 0.164) | 0.453 | 26.8 | 0.005+ | 73.2 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.035 |
Sibling at school
| 1 | 1 | 0.028 (0.020) | (−0.010, 0.067) | 0.077 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.028 |
School domains (#4) | |||||||||||
Low quality of school/education | 3 | 11 | 0.162 (0.089) | (−0.031, 0.354) | 0.091+ | 9.4 | 0.018*** | 51.7 | 0.013 | 38.9 | 0.161 |
Negative school/class climate | 3 | 15 | 0.148 (0.051) | (0.038, 0.259) | 0.012* | 37.2 | 0.000 | 0.1 | 0.007+ | 62.7 | 0.147c |
Large classes/schools
| 1 | 1 | 0.145 (0.080) | (−0.011, 0.292) | 0.035* | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.144c |
Poor pupil-teacher relationship | 4 | 10 | 0.128 (0.062) | (−0.013, 0.269) | 0.071+ | 5.1 | 0.034*** | 94.9 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.127 |
Often changed schools | 4 | 5 | 0.078 (0.063) | (−0.099, 0.254) | 0.288 | 0.8 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.016+ | 99.2 | 0.078 |
Peer domains (#3) | |||||||||||
Involvement with truant/deviant peers | 6 | 13 | 0.232 (0.015) | (0.200, 0.264) | <0.001*** | 42.7 | 0.002+ | 57.3 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.228b |
Poor social competence | 5 | 16 | 0.171 (0.085) | (−0.010. 0.351) | 0.062+ | 5.1 | 0.009* | 21.6 | 0.030* | 73.3 | 0.169 |
Having many friends/being popular | 2 | 10 | 0.096 (0.040) | (0.006, 0.186) | 0.039* | 2.3 | 0.015*** | 97.7 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.096c |
Multicultural peer group
| 1 | 1 | 0.089 (0.020) | (0.050, 0.126) | <0.001*** | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | 0.088c |
Assessment of Bias
Domain of risk factors |
r
| Trim-and-fill analysis | Three-level Funnel Plot test | Three-level Egger”s regression test | Number of methods indicating bias (out of 3) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child domains (#24) | |||||
Age (being older) | 0.126 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.699 | β1 = 0.362, p = 0.675 | 0 |
Alcohol abuse | 0.311 | Overestimation (6 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.288 | β1 = −5.162, p < 0.001*** | 2 |
Anti-social behavior/cognitions | 0.428 | Underestimation (23 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.080+ | β1 = 1.539, p = 0.423 | 1 |
Anxiety | 0.115 | Overestimation (6 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.469 | β1 = 0.443, p = 0.630 | 1 |
Being a sexual minority | 0.273 | Overestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.102 | β1 = 1.928, p = 0.177 | 1 |
Delinquent behavior | 0.252 | Overestimation (4 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.473 | β1 = 4.497, p = 0.158 | 1 |
Depression | 0.237 | Overestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.632 | β1 = 0.359, p = 0.659 | 1 |
Drug abuse | 0.327 | Overestimation (6 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.770 | β1 = 2.557, p = 0.291 | 1 |
Ethnicity (being non-white) | 0.024 | Overestimation (3 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.887 | β1 = −0.544, p = 0.354 | 1 |
Having a job | 0.071 | – | β1 = −0.000, p < 0.001*** | β1 = −34.826, p = 0.734 | 1 |
Having a negative school attitude | 0.503 | Underestimation (22 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.041* | β1 = −1.637, p = 0.669 | 2 |
High impact/negative life events | 0.112 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.951 | β1 = −0.571, p = 0.719 | 0 |
High sexual involvement | 0.229 | Overestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.778 | β1 = −12.814, p = 0.778 | 1 |
Low academic achievement | 0.232 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.599 | β1 = 1.471, p = 0.036* | 1 |
Low academic self-concept | 0.395 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.239 | β1 = 2.604, p = 0.570 | 0 |
Low IQ/learning difficulties | 0.099 | Overestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.895 | β1 = 0.472, p = 0.659 | 1 |
Negative or no leisure activities | 0.081 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.366 | β1 = 2.769, p = 0.548 | 0 |
Not being religious | 0.141 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.862 | β1 = −0.417, p = 0.896 | 0 |
Other internalizing problems | 0.307 | Underestimation (11 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.032* | β1 = −1.286, p = 0.360 | 2 |
Poor physical health | 0.178 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.781 | β1 = 1.296, p = 0.110 | 0 |
Psychiatric symptoms/disorders | 0.303 | Overestimation (3 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p < 0.001*** | β1 = 1.111, p = 0.184 | 2 |
Risky coping/personality profile | 0.158 | Overestimation (5 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.968 | β1 = 0.094, p = 0.940 | 1 |
Showing risky behavior | 0.226 | – | β1 = −0.000, p < 0.001*** | β1 = 11.517, p = 0.001** | 2 |
Smoking | 0.336 | Overestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.311 | β1 = −20.214, p = 0.320 | 1 |
Family domains (#11) | |||||
Family structure (no nuclear family) | 0.187 | Underestimation (7 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.474 | β1 = 1.368, p = 0.466 | 1 |
History of child abuse victimization | 0.257 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.863 | β1 = 1.492, p = 0.342 | 0 |
Ineffective family systems | 0.153 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.270 | β1 = 0.534, p = 0.673 | 0 |
Large family size | 0.194 | Overestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.094+ | β1 = 2.304, p = 0.094+ | 1 |
Low family SES | 0.134 | Overestimation (5 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.119 | β1 = 1.305, p = 0.019* | 2 |
Low parental control | 0.123 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.371 | β1 = −0.980, p = 0.105 | 0 |
Low parental education | 0.155 | Underestimation (6 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.063+ | β1 = 0.676, p = 0.569 | 1 |
Low parental school involvement | 0.272 | Underestimation (5 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.008** | β1 = 2.189, p = 0.156 | 2 |
Low parental support/acceptance | 0.182 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.571 | β1 = −0.480, p = 0.502 | 1 |
Parental mental/physical problems | 0.186 | – | NA | NA | 0 |
Sibling at school | 0.065 | Overestimation (1 ES missing) | NA | NA | 1 |
School domains (#6) | |||||
Distance to school (short) | 0.476 | – | NA | NA | 0 |
Large classes/schools | 0.044 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.903 | β1 = −0.739, p = 0.432 | 1 |
Low quality of school/education | 0.229 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.111 | β1 = 2.955, p = 0.024* | 2 |
Negative school/class climate | 0.183 | Underestimation (5 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.435 | β1 = −0.263, p = 0.827 | 1 |
Poor pupil-teacher relationship | 0.286 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.207 | β1 = 0.319, p = 0.875 | 1 |
Public school (vs. private) | 0.098 | Overestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.002** | β1 = 6.808, p = 0.002** | 3 |
Peer domains (#3) | 0.056 | ||||
Being bullied | 0.011 | Overestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.891 | β1 = −0.883, p = 0.709 | 1 |
Having many friends | 0.201 | – | β1 = −0.001, p = .208 | β1 = 4.279, p = 0.234 | 0 |
Poor social competence | 0.106 | – | β1 = −0.001, p = 0.789 | β1 = 1.352, p = 0.491 | 0 |
Domain of risk factors |
r
| Trim-and-fill analysis | Three-level Funnel Plot test | Three-level Egger”s regression test | Number of methods indicating bias (out of 3) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child domains (#23) | |||||
Age (Being older) | 0.195 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.308 | β1 = −2.688, p = 0.043* | 2 |
Alcohol abuse | 0.101 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.003, p < 0.001*** | β1 = 32.531, p < 0.001*** | 3 |
Anti-social behavior/cognition | 0.236 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.065+ | β1 = 1.293, p = 0.330 | 0 |
Anxiety | 0.009 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.449 | β1 = 4.580, p = 0.449 | 0 |
Delinquent behavior | 0.223 | Overestimation (3 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.568 | β1 = 0.791, p = 0.592 | 1 |
Depression | 0.069 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.772 | β1 = −0.977, p = 0.731 | 0 |
Drug abuse | 0.247 | Overestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.283 | β1 = 2.162, p = 0.098+ | 1 |
Ethnicity (being non-white) | 0.062 | Overestimation (11 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.668 | β1 = −0.163, p = 0.847 | 1 |
Having a job | 0.088 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | NA | NA | 1 |
Having a negative school attitude | 0.210 | Underestimation (9 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.118 | β1 = −1.260, p = 0.411 | 1 |
High sexual involvement | 0.170 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.662 | β1 = −6.660, p = 0.465 | 0 |
History of grade retention | 0.348 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.109 | β1 = 1.169, p = 0.617 | 1 |
Low academic achievement | 0.316 | Underestimation (20 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.949 | β1 = 1.247, p = 0.202 | 1 |
Low academic self-concept | 0.217 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.004** | β1 = −6.891, p = 0.060+ | 2 |
Low IQ/learning difficulties | 0.326 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.509 | β1 = 3.641, p = 0.011* | 1 |
Negative or no leisure activities | 0.084 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.031* | β1 = −3.170, p = 0.422 | 1 |
Not being religious | 0.113 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | NA | NA | 1 |
Other internalizing problems | 0.140 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.720 | β1 = 0.338, p = 0.937 | 1 |
Poor physical health | 0.157 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.726 | β1 = 3.336, p = 0.399 | 1 |
Psychiatric symptoms/disorders | 0.269 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.171 | β1 = −2.673, p = 0.171 | 0 |
Risky coping/personality profile | 0.057 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.158 | β1 = 0.216, p = 0.887 | 0 |
Showing risky behavior | 0.109 | – | NA | NA | 0 |
Smoking | 0.125 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.002** | β1 = −20.443, p = 0.002** | 2 |
Family domains (#12) | |||||
Family structure (no nuclear family) | 0.178 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.760 | β1 = −1.078, p = 0.192 | 0 |
History of child abuse victimization | 0.035 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.547 | β1 = 4.289, p = 0.547 | 1 |
Ineffective family systems | 0.180 | – | β1 = 0.001, p = 0.161 | β1 = −40.624, p = 0.117 | 0 |
Large family size | 0.194 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.295 | β1 = 3.813, p = 0.446 | 0 |
Low family SES | 0.222 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.305 | β1 = 2.197, p = 0.044* | 1 |
Low parental control | 0.134 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.123 | β1 = 3.240, p = 0.149 | 0 |
Low parental education | 0.200 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.320 | β1 = −3.383, p = 0.136 | 0 |
Low parental school involvement | 0.149 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.262 | β1 = −1.702, p = 0.284 | 1 |
Low parental support/acceptance | 0.176 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.032* | β1 = −2.108, p = 0.216 | 2 |
Parental alcohol use | 0.071 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | NA | NA | 1 |
Poor parent-child relationship | 0.164 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.390 | β1 = 3.133, p = 0.097+ | 0 |
Sibling dropped out | 0.121 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | NA | NA | 1 |
School domains (#4) | |||||
Low quality of school/education | 0.161 | – | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.568 | β1 = 2.238, p = 0.464 | 0 |
Negative school/class climate | 0.147 | – | β1 = 0.000, p < 0.001*** | β1 = −1.834, p < 0.001*** | 2 |
Often changed schools | 0.127 | – | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.002** | β1 = −5.973, p = 0.022* | 2 |
Poor pupil-teacher relationship | 0.286 | Underestimation (1 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.612 | β1 = −0.429, p = 0.840 | 1 |
Peer domains (#3) | 0.056 | ||||
Having many friends | 0.096 | Underestimation (2 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.781 | β1 = 1.345, p = 0.781 | 1 |
Involvement with truant/deviant peers | 0.228 | Underestimation (3 ES missing) | β1 = 0.000, p = 0.247 | β1 = −2.817, p = 0.247 | 1 |
Poor social competence | 0.169 | Overestimation (3 ES missing) | β1 = −0.000, p = 0.225 | β1 = 4.967, p = 0.029* | 2 |
The Moderating Effect of Gender
Moderator variable: Percentage of boys in the sample | # Studies | # ES | Intercept (95% CI)/ Mean z (95% CI) | β1 (95% CI) | F (df1, df2)a |
p
b
| Level 2 variance | Level 3 variance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child domains | ||||||||
Age (Being older) | 11 | 15 | 0.127 (0.058, 0.196)** | −0.588 (−2.143, 0.967) | 0.667 (1, 13) | 0.429 | 0.002*** | 0.008 |
Alcohol abuse | 7 | 35 | 0.277 (0.097, 0.458)** | 0.463 (−4.403, 5.329) | 0.038 (1, 33) | 0.848 | 0.020*** | 0.032 |
Anti-social behavior/cognitions | 14 | 38 | 0.249 (0.183, 0.316)*** | 0.500 (−0.654, 1.654) | 0.771 (1, 36) | 0.386 | 0.019*** | 0.006 |
Anxiety | 9 | 25 | 0.106 (0.010, 0.202)* | −0.674 (−1.905, 0.557) | 1.282 (1, 23) | 0.269 | 0.007*** | 0.012** |
Delinquent behavior | 5 | 16 | 0.101 (−0.223, 0.425) | −0.747 (−5.342, 3.848) | 0.221 (1, 14) | 0.732 | 0.015*** | 0.103*** |
Depression | 8 | 13 | 0.239 (0.168, 0.311)*** | 0.278 (−0.861, 1.417) | 0.288 (1, 11) | 0.602 | 0.009*** | 0.000 |
Drug abuse | 7 | 24 | 0.401 (0.291, 0.512)*** | −2.229 (−3.907, −0.551)* | 7.587 (1, 22) | 0.012* | 0.010*** | 0.012** |
Ethnicity (Being non-white) | 12 | 29 | 0.038 (−0.027, 0.103) | 0.038 (−0.086, 0.162) | 0.397 (1.27) | 0.534 | 0.007*** | 0.007 |
Having a negative school attitude | 8 | 50 | 0.304 (0.180, 0.427)*** | 0.987 (−0.949, 2.923) | 1.050 (1, 48) | 0.311 | 0.002*** | 0.020*** |
Low academic achievement | 9 | 19 | 0.225 (0.104, 0.347)** | −0.114 (−0.851, 0.622) | 0.107 (1, 17) | 0.748 | 0.021*** | 0.014 |
Low IQ/learning difficulties | 5 | 6 | 0.107 (0.003, 0.211)* | −0.267 (−1.482, 0.947) | 0.374 (1, 4) | 0.574 | 0.006 | 0.000 |
Other internalizing problems | 8 | 18 | 0.172 (0.071, 0.274)* | −0.709 (−2.334, 0.915) | 0.856 (1, 16) | 0.369 | 0.011*** | 0.009 |
Poor physical health | 10 | 57 | 0.179 (0.087, 0.272)*** | 0.056 (−1.292, 1.403) | 0.007 (1, 55) | 0.934 | 0.010*** | 0.015*** |
Risky coping/personality profile | 5 | 30 | 0.158 (0.111, 0.204)*** | 0.085 (−1.239, 1.408) | 0.017 (1, 28) | 0.897 | 0.011*** | 0.000 |
Family domains | ||||||||
Family structure | 10 | 23 | 0.179 (0.081, 0.278)** | 0.959 (−1.474, 3.393) | 0.672 (1, 21) | 0.421 | 0.050*** | 0.000 |
Low family SES | 15 | 35 | 0.088 (−0.007, 0.182)+ | 0.398 (−1.170, 1.966) | 0.267 (1, 33) | 0.609 | 0.008*** | 0.024*** |
Low parental control | 5 | 12 | 0.110 (0.010, 0.210)* | 0.137 (−0.985, 1.259) | 0.074 (1, 10) | 0.791 | 0.005*** | 0.006 |
Low parental education | 6 | 17 | 0.156 (0.063, 0.249)** | −0.457 (−2.055, 1.141) | 0.372 (1, 15) | 0.551 | 0.012*** | 0.004 |
School domains | ||||||||
Negative school/class climate | 6 | 22 | 0.184 (0.108, 0.260)*** | −2.642 (−7.892, 2.608) | 1.102 (1, 20) | 0.306 | 0.019*** | 0.001 |
Peer domains | ||||||||
Poor social competence | 5 | 7 | 0.171 (−0.036, 0.378)+ | −1.523 (−4.805, 1.759) | 1.423 (1, 5) | 0.286 | 0.038*** | 0.000 |
Moderator variable: Percentage of boys in the sample | # Studies | # ES | Intercept (95% CI)/ Mean z (95% CI) | β1 (95% CI) | F (df1, df2)a |
p
b
| Level 2 variance | Level 3 variance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child domains | ||||||||
Anti-social behavior/cognitions | 13 | 33 | 0.233 (0.153, 0.313)*** | 0.148 (−0.080, 0.376) | 1.745 (1, 31) | 0.196 | 0.007*** | 0.015** |
Drug abuse | 5 | 9 | 0.272 (0.166, 0.378)*** | 0.616 (−0.064, 1.295)+ | 4.593 (1, 7) | 0.069+ | 0.012*** | 0.000 |
Ethnicity (Being non-white) | 11 | 50 | 0.043 (−0.003, 0.089)+ | 0.575 (−2.313, 3.462) | 0.160 (1, 48) | 0.691 | 0.019*** | 0.001 |
Having a negative school attitude | 9 | 44 | 0.208 (0.161, 0.255)*** | −1.521 (−3.023, −0.019)* | 4.175 (1, 42) | 0.047* | 0.023*** | 0.000 |
History of grade retention | 10 | 18 | 0.362 (0.255, 0.470)*** | −0.031 (−0.493, 0.431) | 0.020 (1, 16) | 0.890 | 0.023*** | 0.010 |
Low academic achievement | 19 | 87 | 0.341 (0.270, 0.412)*** | 0.017 (−0.111, 0.144) | 0.068 (1. 85) | 0.795 | 0.024*** | 0.013* |
Low IQ/learning difficulties | 7 | 11 | 0.362 (0.195, 0.529)*** | 0.390 (−0.243, 1.024) | 1.942 (1, 9) | 0.197 | 0.054*** | 0.000 |
Risky coping/personality profile | 5 | 20 | 0.058 (−0.015, 0.131) | −0.067 (−0.427, 0.292) | 0.156 (1, 18) | 0.698 | 0.022*** | 0.000 |
Family domains | ||||||||
Family structure | 7 | 17 | 0.173 (0.120, 0.226)*** | −0.061 (−0.222, 0.099) | 0.660 (1, 15) | 0.429 | 0.008*** | 0.000 |
Low family SES | 14 | 30 | 0.233 (0.131, 0.335)*** | 0.095 (−0.206, 0.396) | 0.418 (1, 28) | 0.523 | 0.011*** | 0.027*** |
Low parental control | 8 | 21 | 0.124 (0.004, 0.244)* | 0.168 (−0.118, 0.454) | 1.516 (1, 19) | 0.233 | 0.004*** | 0.022*** |
Low parental education | 10 | 20 | 0.203 (0.120, 0.287)*** | −0.027 (−0.166, 0.113) | 0.162 (1, 18) | 0.692 | 0.003*** | 0.013** |
Low parental school involvement | 6 | 24 | 0.151 (0.058, 0.245)** | 0.141 (−0.086, 0.368) | 1.655 (1, 22) | 0.212 | 0.010*** | 0.009** |
Low parental support/acceptance | 8 | 16 | 0.177 (0.064, 0.289)** | 0.029 (−0.262, 0.320) | 0.045 (1, 14) | 0.834 | 0.014*** | 0.013 |
Peer domains | ||||||||
Involvement with truant/deviant peers | 5 | 12 | 0.226 (0.195, 0.258)*** | 0.181 (−0.037, 0.399) | 3.433 (1, 10) | 0.094+ | 0.001+ | 0.000 |