Building a solid identity in different life domains is a pivotal task during adolescence, affecting individuals’ adjustment and well-being over time. However, adolescents’ psychosocial functioning can also play a role in the extent to which they feel safe to explore meaningful alternatives and can engage in identity formation processes. Extensive research has explored the relations occurring between identity and adjustment during adolescence and has increasingly focused on the positive side of well-being (i.e., positive physical health perception, subjective, psychological, and social well-being), considering the positive loop that the interplay of identity and well-being during adolescence might represent. The purpose of this study was to provide a comprehensive picture of the associations of identity processes and well-being in adolescence, adopting a domain-specific approach to identity and accounting for multiple dimensions of well-being. Moreover, the differences that may occur in these relations between adolescents from the majority group (i.e., Italian) and those with a migrant background (i.e., born or with at least one parent born in a different country), were also considered.
The Positive Loop Between Identity and Well-Being
Previous research showed that a solid identity (i.e., characterized by high commitment, high in-depth exploration, and low reconsideration of commitment; Crocetti et al.,
2008) is associated with better outcomes in terms of adjustment and mental health. Results of the present study advance this evidence, revealing a nuanced pattern of associations between identity processes in the educational and interpersonal domains, physical health perception, and subjective, psychological, and social well-being. Doing so, the present study contributes to a better understanding of the differences between identity domains (Klimstra et al.,
2016) and focuses on the positive sides of well-being (Bornstein et al.,
2003).
First of all,
commitment in both domains appeared to be positively associated with all well-being dimensions over time. These findings highlight that this process represents a fundamental asset, not only to protect from disturbances (Raemen et al.,
2022) but also to enhance positive feelings such as those accounted by well-being dimensions (Bogaerts et al.,
2023). The underlying mechanism that can explain these results points to the role played by identity commitments, which give individuals a sense of direction and purpose and facilitate personal autonomy and effectiveness by providing standards for solving problems, making decisions, and interpreting self-relevant information (Berzonsky & Papini,
2015; Bosma & Kunnen,
2001). Moreover, commitment has been linked to a stable self-concept, emotional stability, and good relations with peers and parents, connected in turn to high levels of well-being (Karaś et al.,
2015; Luyckx et al.,
2011).
Importantly, results highlighted that all dimensions of well-being, except for physical health perception, were associated with higher levels of commitment in both domains over time. These results point to a positive loop between identity and well-being, that is the more adolescents feel in control of their life, that their life has meaning, and that they are involved in the society, the more confident they would feel in making meaningful choices in multiple life domains. The strong interplay between commitment and well-being dimensions was further corroborated by within-time correlations at baseline and correlated changes, which were consistently significant and highlighted the robustness of this “alliance” between commitment and well-being.
Further,
in-depth exploration in the interpersonal domain was found to be reciprocally negatively associated with physical health perception over time. The negative reciprocal link between interpersonal in-depth exploration and physical health perception could be explained by considering that the interpersonal domain is strongly related to feeling social support from significant others (Hatano et al.,
2020). The uncertainty regarding the relationship with their best friend can lead to negative feelings connected with stress and anxiety (Crocetti et al.,
2009), making adolescence perceive their general health as poorer. These negative associations are in line with the idea that adolescents who display somatic symptoms are generally more impeded in actively exploring identity alternatives (Raemen et al.,
2023). Conversely, higher levels of psychological and social well-being were associated with higher in-depth exploration in the educational domain. These results corroborate the idea that high levels of psychological well-being can function as a protective factor for adolescents to get engaged in the process of exploring in-depth their identity choices. This can be particularly evident in the educational domain because of its relatively more closed nature, which requires overcoming some contextual constraints to dive into a deep reflection (Becht et al.,
2017). This relation was also confirmed by within-time correlations and correlated changes, where subjective, psychological, and social well-being were positively associated with in-depth exploration in the educational domain.
In this vein, this study further illuminates the complex role played by in-depth exploration, that has led to consider it as a double-edged sword (e.g., Crocetti, Jahromi, et al.,
2012). On the one hand, in-depth exploration is beneficial at an individual, interpersonal, and collective level, being linked to adaptive personality dimensions such as extroversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness (Crocetti et al.,
2008; Klimstra et al.,
2012; Luyckx et al.,
2014a,
2014b), warmer family and peer relationships (Crocetti et al.,
2017; Kaniušonytė et al.,
2019), higher social responsibility (Crocetti et al.,
2012)), lower prejudice against minorities (Bobba et al.,
2023), thus aspects that are fundamental to develop inclusive relations with diverse others. On the other hand, these positive aspects come with a certain cost for the individual, as in-depth exploration may also lead to distress and uncertainty about one’s choices (Crocetti et al.,
2008; Karaś & Cieciuch,
2018). This nuanced picture highlights that the implications of in-depth exploration differ according to the level of analysis taken into account.
Finally, regarding
reconsideration of commitment, physical health perception was associated with lower levels of this process in the interpersonal domain over time. In this way, adolescents who perceive that they are in good health, are less likely to reconsider their commitments regarding their interpersonal identity. This result confirms the importance of considering physical health perception as a unique asset when investigating adolescents’ well-being (Vankerckhoven et al.,
2023), which can function as a protective factor for youth to form a solid identity.
This result was substantially replicated in the within-time correlations and correlated changes of the other models. Reconsideration of commitment in both domains was negatively associated with subjective and psychological well-being at baseline. Educational reconsideration of commitment was negatively associated with subjective well-being, whereas interpersonal reconsideration of commitment was positively associated with social well-being, in the correlated changes. This difference can be interpreted in light of the difference between the two dimensions of well-being, mainly considering the specificity of social well-being. It is likely that the more adolescents feel that they are part of the society in which they are embedded, the more they feel that they can revise their interpersonal commitment when they are no longer satisfied. This result reinforces the need to separately investigate different dimensions of well-being and to further explore their longitudinal association with identity formation.
Overall, these findings show how identity has a crucial role in promoting well-being during adolescence. Remarkably, the interplay of identity processes and well-being creates a positive loop in which a more solid identity is related to higher levels of adjustment over time and vice-versa. Even though the effect sizes of the paths were small, they can be considered meaningful in light of the stability of the variables, and of the significant bivariate correlations between them (Adachi & Willoughby,
2015). Importantly, these results highlight different paths depending on the identity domains, and the diverse dimensions of well-being considered.
The Challenge of Integration: The Role of Different Cultural Backgrounds
One of the purposes of the current study was to take a culturally sensitive perspective to investigate whether having a migrant background might moderate the interplay of identity processes and well-being dimensions in adolescence. Interestingly, the results indicated that, albeit most patterns were replicated across groups, some differences regarding the cross-lagged association between identity processes in both the educational and interpersonal domains and dimensions of well-being emerged. Specifically, some paths resulted significantly stronger for youth with a migrant background than for those from the majority group.
Regarding the
educational domain, the effect of commitment on physical health perception, subjective, and psychological well-being was significantly stronger for adolescents with a migrant background compared to the majority group. The negative association of physical health perception with reconsideration of commitment over time was significantly stronger for students with a migrant background. This link can be explained by considering the cultural differences that might occur between the groups. Adolescents with a migrant background need to navigate both the developmental and the acculturative tasks (Crocetti et al.,
2023; Motti-Stefanidi,
2019), thus for them finding meaningful commitments is more difficult (Crocetti et al.,
2011). This study shows that if solid commitments in the educational domain foster adolescents’ overall well-being in general, this association might be even stronger for youth with a migrant background who need to face more challenges in their adjustment process. These results call attention to the need to further explore the link between physical health perception and identity formation cycle in the educational domain. These findings also align with previous studies highlighting the importance of the school context in fostering integration (Bohman & Miklikowska,
2020) and minorities’ social class mobility (Platt,
2007).
Regarding the
interpersonal domain, the association of in-depth exploration with both subjective and psychological well-being was significantly stronger for adolescents with a migrant background, compared with the majority group. A significant difference was found between the correlated changes in interpersonal commitment and those in social well-being. This result can be explained in light of the relational challenges to which the increasing multiculturality of nowadays society exposes adolescents (Karataş et al.,
2023; Svensson & Syed,
2019). Specifically, individuals who belong to minority groups face the difficult task of trying to fit in, and in some cases struggling with the complex process of integrating some sides of the self that belong to their ethnic group of origin with some other sides that are part of the host culture (Mastrotheodoros et al.,
2021). In this vein, in adolescents with a migrant background, the process of in-depth exploration concerning the relationship with their best friend can make them feel the actual possibility of going through alternative possibilities that in turn might support finding fulfilling commitments and, therefore, the achievement of a future solid identity that fosters adaptive functioning and well-being.
Practical Implications
This study has noteworthy practical implications. First of all, since results highlight the positive loop between identity and well-being, it can be useful to plan evidence-based interventions, for instance, in schools, to foster the formation of a solid identity (Palen & Coatsworth,
2007). Vice-versa, the current study shed some light on the overall importance of working also on adolescents’ well-being to create the best conditions for them to face the core developmental task of building a stable identity, mainly by stimulating them toward a reflection on their emotional states, their awareness and mastery of their lives, as well as their feeling about how they are in the current multicultural society (for a review, Tejada-Gallardo et al.,
2020). Moreover, working on psychological well-being has been identified as a crucial relapse-preventive strategy toward affective and anxiety disorders (Fava & Ruini,
2003), which can be a positive collateral effect of working to foster the positive loop between identity and well-being. Furthermore, stressing the remarkable role that the interplay between identity and well-being has for individuals with a migrant background, suggests that specific interventions focused on the integration of minorities are needed. Since a solid educational identity represents a crucial asset to fostering a good functioning for adolescents with a migrant background, working on integration and social support in the school context can be of outstanding importance to create more inclusive societies (Bohman & Miklikowska,
2020; Juang et al.,
2021; Umaña-Taylor et al.,
2018).
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
The present study should be considered in light of some limitations that can suggest directions for future research. First, identity was assessed by means of questionnaires. Considering the multifaceted nature of identity, future studies should include other methodological approaches, including qualitative measures (e.g., McAdams & McLean,
2013), and assessment in different time scales (e.g., identity daily fluctuations; Klimstra & Schwab,
2021) to unfold how the interplay of identity and well-being disclose when accounting for narrative contents and short-term changes. Regarding well-being, even though it is essential to consider the perception of one’s physical health as a crucial dimension of well-being, it would be interesting to compare current results by assessing physical health with objective instruments (e.g., sleep quality through actigraphy; Natale et al.,
2009) to check if it overlaps with subjective measures. It should be noted that some of the data reported in the current study have been collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, which might have played a role in adolescents’ perception of their physical health and well-being (e.g., Mancini & Imperato,
2022). Furthermore, identity formation can be addressed by using different approaches, such as a variable-centered and a person-centered one (Von Eye & Bogat,
2006), which can both be informative and enriching on this topic. The present study was conducted adopting a variable-centered approach since its purpose was to address the interplay between specific identity processes and different dimensions of well-being in adolescence. The next steps could benefit from the integration of a person-centered approach to examine the associations between well-being and different identity statuses, as well as with identity configuration emerging from the analyses of multiple domains (Crocetti et al.,
2012; Luyckx et al.,
2014a,
2014b). Finally, future research could benefit from disentangling the links between identity and well-being at both a between- and within-person level, by using a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model which allows for the distinction of the variance at these two different levels (Hamaker et al.,
2015). Looking at the associations at multiple levels can help further understand the complex and rich interplay of identity and well-being in adolescence.