Background
Methods
Participants
Foot posture measurement | Normal | Pes planus | Pes cavus |
---|---|---|---|
FPI | + 1 to + 7 | > + 7 | < + 1 |
Arch Index | 0.11 to 0.25 | > 0.25 | < 0.11 |
Normalised navicular height truncated | 0.31 to 0.22 | < 0.22 | > 0.31 |
Instrumentation
Experimental protocol
Data processing and statistical analysis
Results
Participant characteristics
Normal (n = 35) | Planus (n = 31) | Cavus (n = 26) | |
---|---|---|---|
Anthropometric measures | |||
Sex, n = M/F | 17/18 | 16/15 | 12/14 |
Age, years | 25.1 (5.1) | 24.5 (5.9) | 26.1 (7.2) |
Height, cm | 172.9 (9.3) | 166.9 (9.7) | 173.7 (11.1) |
Weight, kg | 70.0 (13.7) | 69.2 (17.1) | 72.4 (14.3) |
BMI, kg/m2 | 23.4 (3.2) | 24.6 (5.1) | 23.7 (2.7) |
Foot posture measures | |||
FPI | 3.8 (1.0), range: 1-6 | 9.0 (1.0), range 8-12 | −1.4 (1.2), range: −4-0 |
NNHt | 0.25 (0.02), range: 0.20-0.32 | 0.19 (0.03), range: 0.11-0.24 | 0.32 (0.02), range: 0.29-0.37 |
AI | 0.22 (0.03), range: 0.15-0.29 | 0.30 (0.05), range: 0.23-0.40 | 0.16 (0.06), range: 0.04-0.24 |
Contact time, ms | 698.8 (52.1) | 699.8 (68.9) | 707.7 (66.2) |
Velocity of the COP
Normal mean (SD) | Planus mean (SD) | Cavus mean (SD) | Planus vs normal mean difference (95% CI) ESa | Cavus vs normal mean difference (95% CI) ESa | Planus vs cavus mean difference (95% CI) ESa | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Loading response | ||||||
Average | 0.405 (0.084) | 0.397 (0.070) | 0.400 (0.082) | −0.008 (− 0.056 to 0.040) | −0.005 (− 0.059 to 0.046) | − 0.003 (− 0.055 to 0.0482) |
Maximum | 0.845 (0.245) | 0.797 (0.220) | 0.909 (0.272) | − 0.048 (− 0.198 to 0.102) | 0.064 (− 0.091 to 0.220) | − 0.112 (− 0.273 to 0.048) |
Minimum | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000 to 0.000) | 0.000 (0.000 to 0.000) | 0.000 (0.000 to 0.000) |
Range | 0.854 (0.247) | 0.795 (0.223) | 0.909 (0.267) | −0.050 (− 0.199 to 0.099) | 0.064 (− 0.090 to 0.218) | − 0.114 (− 0.272 to 0.045) |
Midstance | ||||||
Average | 0.435 (0.061) | 0.403 (0.091) | 0.442 (0.119) | −0.032 (− 0.088 to 0.024) | 0.007 (− 0.051 to 0.065) | −0.039 (− 0.098 to 0.020) |
Maximum | 0.648 (0.124) | 0.596 (0.144) | 0.641 (0.161) | −0.052 (− 0.139 to 0.035) | −0.008 (− 0.097 to 0.081) | −0.044 (− 0.136 to 0.048) |
Minimum | 0.163 (0.065) | 0.163 (0.059) | 0.173 (0.192) | 0.000 (−0.072 to 0.071) | 0.010 (−0.064 to 0.083) | 0.010 (− 0.086 to 0.065) |
Range | 0.485 (0.157) | 0.434 (0.159) | 0.486 (0.166) | −0.051 (− 0.149 to 0.047) | 0.002 (− 0.100 to 0.103) | −0.052 (− 0.158 to 0.052) |
Terminal stance | ||||||
Average | 0.177 (0.069) | 0.200 (0.063) | 0.152 (0.056) | 0.023 (−0.016 to 0.062) | −0.025 (− 0.066 to 0.015) | 0.048 (0.006 to 0.090) 0.86b |
Maximum | 0.384 (0.144) | 0.386 (0.133) | 0.361 (0.149) | 0.001 (−0.085 to 0.088) | − 0.022 (− 0.113 to 0.068) | 0.024 (− 0.068 to 0.117) |
Minimum | 0.071 (0.030) | 0.098 (0.039) | 0.050 (0.024) | 0.027 (0.008 to 0.046) 0.77b | −0.021 (− 0.041 to − 0.001) 0.78b | 0.049 (0.028 to 0.069) 1.49c |
Range | 0.312 (0.133) | 0.287 (0.127) | 0.311 (0.136) | −0.026 (− 0.106 to 0.055) | −0.001 (− 0.085 to 0.083) | −0.024 (− 0.111 to 0.062) |
Pre-swing | ||||||
Average | 0.453 (0.098) | 0.451 (0.082) | 0.484 (0.074) | −0.002 (− 0.055 to 0.051) | 0.031 (− 0.024 to 0.086) | − 0.033 (− 0.090 to 0.023) |
Maximum | 1.324 (0.450) | 1.197 (0.493) | 1.520 (0.487) | − 0.127 (− 0.418 to 0.164) | 0.193 (− 0.110 to 0.495) | − 0.319 (− 0.631 to − 0.008) 0.66b |
Minimum | 0.092 (0.052) | 0.141 (0.066) | 0.078 (0.040) | − 0.049 (− 0.083 to − 0.016) 0.82b | 0.014 (− 0.021 to 0.048) | − 0.063 (− 0.098 to − 0.027) 1.15c |
Range | 1.448 (0.412) | 1.333 (0.502) | 1.595 (0.473) | − 0.115 (− 0.402 to 0.172) | 0.146 (− 0.149 to 0.442) | −0.261 (− 0.566 to 0.043) |
Lateral-medial force index
Normal mean (SD) | Planus mean (SD) | Cavus mean (SD) | Planus vs normal mean difference (95% CI) ESa | Cavus vs normal mean difference (95% CI) ESa | Planus vs cavus mean difference (95% CI) ESa | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Loading response | ||||||
Average | 0.945 (0.142) | 0.887 (0.116) | 0.978 (0.206) | − 0.058 (− 0.156 to 0.039) | 0.033 (− 0.068 to 0.134) | −0.091 (− 0.194 to 0.012) |
Maximum | 1.169 (0.199) | 1.164 (0.255) | 1.289 (0.353) | −0.005 (− 0.176 to 0.167) | 0.119 (− 0.057 to 0.296) | −0.124 (− 0.304 to 0.055) |
Minimum | 0.711 (0.181) | 0.631 (0.207) | 0.715 (0.221) | −0.079 (− 0.206 to 0.046) | 0.004 (− 0.126 to 0.134) | −0.084 (− 0.217 to 0.050) |
Range | 0.507 (0.220) | 0.523 (0.275) | 0.573 (0.281) | 0.016 (−0.144 to 0.175) | 0.066 (− 0.100 to 0.233) | − 0.050 (− 0.219 to 0.118) |
Midstance | ||||||
Average | 1.400 (0.249) | 1.276 (0.161) | 1.343 (0.199) | −0.124 (− 0.255 to 0.008) | −0.056 (− 0.192 to 0.079) | −0.067 (− 0.208 to 0.073) |
Maximum | 1.592 (0.263) | 1.450 (0.207) | 1.561 (0.259) | −0.142 (− 0.297 to 0.012) | −0.032 (− 0.192 to 0.128) | −0.111 (− 0.275 to 0.054) |
Minimum | 1.077 (0.141) | 1.025 (0.178) | 1.070 (0.189) | −0.052 (− 0.158 to 0.054) | −0.007 (− 0.117 to 0.103) | −0.044 (− 0.157 to 0.068) |
Range | 0.527 (0.295) | 0.405 (0.173) | 0.493 (0.238) | −0.122 (− 0.274 to 0.029) | −0.033 (− 0.189 to 0.123) | −0.089 (− 0.249 to 0.072) |
Terminal stance | ||||||
Average | 1.235 (0.204) | 1.153 (0.115) | 1.148 (0.157) | −0.082 (− 0.186 to 0.022) | −0.087 (− 0.193 to 0.019) | 0.005 (− 0.105 to 0.115) |
Maximum | 1.474 (0.193) | 1.383 (0.139) | 1.437 (0.262) | −0.090 (− 0.219 to 0.038) | −0.036 (− 0.168 to 0.095) | −0.054 (− 0.189 to 0.080) |
Minimum | 0.941 (0.189) | 0.954 (0.163) | 0.891 (0.149) | 0.013 (−0.092 to 0.118) | −0.049 (− 0.158 to 0.059) | 0.063 (− 0.049 to 0.175) |
Range | 0.617 (0.372) | 0.426 (0.183) | 0.546 (0.281) | −0.190 (− 0.375 to − 0.006) 0.65b | −0.070 (− 0.259 to 0.118) | −0.120 (− 0.317 to 0.077) |
Pre-swing | ||||||
Average | 0.838 (0.186) | 0.772 (0.151) | 0.782 (0.121) | −0.065 (− 0.165 to 0.033) | −0.056 (− 0.158 to 0.047) | −0.009 (− 0.116 to 0.096) |
Maximum | 1.118 (0.208) | 1.120 (0.241) | 1.055 (0.121) | 0.002 (−0.126 to 0.131) | −0.063 (− 0.195 to 0.069) | 0.065 (− 0.068 to 0.200) |
Minimum | 0.513 (0.136) | 0.459 (0.102) | 0.494 (0.124) | 0.054 (−0.024 to 0.132) | 0.019 (−0.061 to 0.098) | 0.035 (− 0.046 to 0.116) |
Range | 1.631 (0.243) | 1.579 (0.263) | 1.538 (0.167) | −0.052 (− 0.200 to 0.097) | −0.093 (− 0.246 to 0.060) | 0.041 (− 0.114 to 0.196) |
Centre of pressure excursion index
Normal mean (SD) | Planus mean (SD) | Cavus mean (SD) | Planus vs normal mean difference (95% CI) | Cavus vs normal mean difference (95% CI) | Planus vs cavus mean difference (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
20.4 (6.5) | 18.4 (4.5) | 20.2 (5.8) | −2.0 (− 5.4 to 1.4) | −0.2 (− 3.8 to 3.4) | −1.8 (− 5.5 to 1.8) |