Introduction
Parenting Adolescents
Adolescents’ Communication Strategies and Information Management
Adolescents Influence Parents
Are Links between Parent–Adolescent Communication and Adolescent Development Similar across Cultures?
Current Study
Methods
Participants
Procedure
Measures
Demographics
Adolescent externalizing and internalizing behavior
Parent–adolescent communication: adolescent disclosure, adolescent secrecy, parent behavioral control, parent solicitation
Analytic Plan
Results
Cultural group | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
China (M, SD) or % Male | Naples, Italy (M, SD) or % Male | Rome, Italy (M, SD) or % Male | Kenya (M, SD) or % Male | Philippines (M, SD) or % Male | Thailand (M, SD) or % Male | Sweden (M, SD) or % Male | USB(M, SD) or % Male | USW (M, SD) or % Male | USL (M, SD) or % Male | Colombia (M, SD) or % Male | Jordan (M, SD) or % Male | |
Age 13 Variables | ||||||||||||
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | 5.55 (2.41) | 5.32 (2.34) | 4.99 (2.45) | 6.83 (2.15) | 5.85 (2.12) | 5.44 (2.35) | 6.02 (2.02) | 5.55 (2.45) | 5.19 (2.08) | 5.85 (2.05) | 4.88 (2.36) | 6.77 (2.43) |
Secrecy | 1.33 (1.29) | 1.10 (1.48) | 1.12 (1.36) | 1.19 (1.59) | 1.67 (0.149) | 2.26 (1.61) | 0.61 (0.81) | 1.29 (1.65) | 1.07 (1.30) | 0.99 (1.19) | 0.96 (1.28) | 2.02 (1.91) |
Age 13 parent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | 11.12 (4.83) | 13.74 (3.47) | 13.34 (4.02) | 13.88 (3.72) | 13.51 (3.58) | 13.4 (4.38) | 12.54 (3.92) | 13.28 (3.65) | 13.74 (3.23) | 14.61 (3.04) | 15.52 (3.11) | 14.83 (3.28) |
Solicitation | 6.62 (2.57) | 6.52 (2.55) | 6.14 (2.46) | 8.06 (2.62) | 7.01 (2.69) | 7.16 (2.68) | 7.04 (2.48) | 6.64 (2.80) | 7.27 (2.61) | 6.67 (2.74) | 6.25 (3.03) | 8.73 (3.48) |
Age 13 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | 5.68 (4.97) | 9.70 (5.85) | 10.99 (6.74) | 7.87 (7.01) | 12.41 (6.67) | 11.71 (7.99) | 9.18 (4.95) | 10.11 (8.65) | 10.66 (6.22) | 8.26 (6.45) | 10.46 (6.97) | 13.72 (8.55) |
Internalizing behavior | 7.61 (7.11) | 13.42 (8.41) | 13.37 (7.83) | 13.70 (8.86) | 18.57 (9.10) | 14.77 (8.33) | 8.06 (6.31) | 12.12 (8.97) | 13.29 (9.52) | 9.07 (6.84) | 14.22 (8.65) | 13.84 (7.79) |
Demographic covariates | ||||||||||||
Adolescent gender | 50% | 48% | 53% | 40% | 51% | 51% | 51% | 48% | 58% | 47% | 44% | 53% |
Years of parent education | 14.46 (2.82) | 11.38 (4.36) | 14.90 (4.21) | 12.77 (3.46) | 14.80 (3.97) | 13.22 (4.41) | 14.61 (2.65) | 14.12 (2.50) | 17.95 (3.05) | 10.89 (3.86) | 11.70 (5.51) | 14.21 (2.47) |
Age 15 Variables | ||||||||||||
Age 15 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | 5.45 (2.36) | 5.32 (2.29) | 4.77 (2.26) | 6.35 (2.25) | 5.71 (2.02) | 5.15 (2.51) | 5.58 (2.04) | 5.67 (2.46) | 4.70 (2.16) | 6.03 (2.07) | 4.89 (2.38) | 6.47 (2.67) |
Secrecy | 1.58 (1.16) | 1.01 (1.27) | 1.27 (1.46) | 1.10 (1.35) | 1.69 (1.21) | 1.93 (1.39) | 1.12 (1.27) | 1.15 (1.39) | 1.47 (1.51) | 1.02 (1.34) | 1.28 (1.39) | 2.30 (2.24) |
Age 15 parent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | 12.68 (4.38) | 12.79 (3.98) | 12.25 (4.07) | 13.92 (3.50) | 12.91 (3.82) | 13.21 (4.15) | 10.92 (4.38) | 12.75 (4.11) | 12.38 (3.85) | 14.08 (3.38) | 13.65 (3.40) | 13.91 (4.29) |
Solicitation | 6.62 (2.57) | 6.52 (2.55) | 6.14 (2.46) | 8.06 (2.62) | 7.01 (2.69) | 7.16 (2.68) | 7.05 (2.48) | 6.64 (2.80) | 7.27 (2.61) | 6.66 (2.74) | 6.25 (3.03) | 8.73 (3.48) |
Age 15 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | 5.77 (4.30) | 11.62 (6.39) | 12.47 (7.01) | 6.83 (4.81) | 13.24 (6.85) | 13.51 (7.78) | 10.66 (5.88) | 9.34 (7.91) | 12.09 (7.61) | 8.97 (6.73) | 13.37 (8.56) | 13.56 (8.19) |
Internalizing behavior | 10.54 (7.26) | 15.98 (9.83) | 15.12 (8.92) | 13.92 (6.81) | 18.29 (8.39) | 15.94 (9.17) | 11.25 (8.01) | 12.24 (10.04) | 16.25 (11.21) | 11.64 (8.33) | 17.69 (11.78) | 12.22 (8.71) |
Missing Data
Fitting Appropriate Path Analytic Model
Cultural group | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
China (β, SE) | Naples, Italy (β, SE) | Rome, Italy (β, SE) | Kenya (β, SE) | Philippines (β, SE) | Thailand (β, SE) | Sweden (β, SE) | USB (β, SE) | USW (β, SE) | USL (β, SE) | Colombia (β, SE) | Jordan (β, SE) | |
Age 13 predictors of age 15 child disclosure | ||||||||||||
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | 0.26 (0.05)* | 0.29 (0.05)* | 0.31 (0.05)* | 0.25 (0.04)* | 0.27 (0.04)* | 0.24 (0.04)* | 0.28 (0.05)* | 0.27 (0.04)* | 0.25 (0.04)* | 0.28 (0.05)* | 0.27 (0.05)* | 0.24 (0.04)* |
Secrecy | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.04) |
Age 13 parent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | −0.12 (0.17) | −0.04 (0.11) | 0.08 (0.09) | 0.01 (0.12) | 0.07 (0.10) | 0.01 (0.09) | −0.07 (0.12) | −0.25 (0.09)* | −0.01 (0.10) | −0.12 (0.14) | −0.22 (0.10)* | 0.14 (0.10) |
Solicitation | 0.12 (0.15) | 0.01 (0.11) | 0.14 (0.09) | −0.12 (0.10) | 0.12 (0.10) | 0.11 (0.10) | 0.18 (0.10) | 0.25 (0.10)* | 0.07 (0.10) | 0.31 (0.12)* | 0.09 (0.10) | −0.08 (0.09) |
Age 13 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | 0.27 (0.26) | 0.09 (0.12) | −0.13 (0.11) | −0.27 (0.12)* | 0.20 (0.11) | −0.20 (0.12) | −0.41 (0.10)* | −0.05 (0.11) | −0.04 (0.13) | −0.08 (0.15) | 0.09 (0.11) | −0.01 (0.11) |
Internalizing behavior | −0.59 (0.20)* | −0.09 (0.12) | −0.10 (0.11) | 0.18 (0.12) | −0.04 (0.11) | 0.05 (0.11) | 0.16 (0.11) | 0.15 (0.10) | −0.14 (0.13) | −0.10 (0.14) | −0.26 (0.10)* | −0.20 (0.10)* |
Demographic covariates | ||||||||||||
Adolescent male gender | −0.04 (0.14) | −0.03 (0.10) | −0.14 (0.08) | −0.02 (0.09) | −0.17 (0.08)* | −0.16 (0.09)+ | −0.01 (0.09) | −0.09 (0.08) | −0.29 (0.09) | −0.27 (0.11)* | −0.11 (0.09) | 0.34 (0.09)* |
Years of parent education | −0.01 (0.02) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.02 | −0.01 (0.02) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.02) |
Age 13 predictors of age 15 child secrecy | ||||||||||||
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | −0.04 (0.05) | −0.04 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.02 (0.02) |
Secrecy | −0.08 (0.15) | 0.38 (0.08)* | 0.24 (0.09)* | 0.08 (0.12) | 0.24 (0.10)* | 0.12 (0.10) | 0.20 (0.10)* | −0.03 (0.11) | 0.29 (0.08)* | 0.09 (0.14) | 0.39 (0.10)* | 0.16 (0.09) |
Age 13 parent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | −0.02 (0.06) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.02) |
Solicitation | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.01 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.01 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.01 (0.04) | 0.01 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.04) | 0.01 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) |
Age 13 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | 0.15 (0.04)* | 0.17 (0.04)* | 0.17 (0.04)* | 0.18 (0.05)* | 0.19 (0.05)* | 0.20 (0.05)* | 0.14 (0.04)* | 0.22 (0.05)* | 0.14 (0.04)* | 0.18 (0.05)* | 0.18 (0.05)* | 0.13 (0.03)* |
Internalizing behavior | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.05) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.05) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.02) |
Demographic covariates | ||||||||||||
Adolescent Male Gender | 0.09 (0.04)* | 0.08 (0.04)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.08 (0.03)* | 0.09 (0.04)* | 0.08 (0.03)* | 0.08 (0.03)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.08 (0.03)* | 0.08 (0.03)* | 0.05 (0.02)* |
Years of parent education | −0.04 (0.18) | −0.03 (0.08) | 0.26 (0.09)* | 0.01 (0.11) | 0.11 (0.11) | −0.13 (0.11) | −0.25 (0.10)* | −0.13 (0.10) | −0.11 (0.08) | −0.09 (0.14) | −0.11 (0.10) | 0.04 (0.09) |
Age 13 predictors of age 15 parent control | ||||||||||||
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | 0.06 (0.03)+ | 0.07 (0.04)+ | 0.07 (0.04)+ | 0.07 (0.04)+ | 0.06 (0.03)+ | 0.06 (0.03)+ | 0.06 (0.03)+ | 0.07 (0.04)+ | 0.06 (0.03)+ | 0.08 (0.04)+ | 0.08 (0.04)+ | 0.07 (0.03)+ |
Secrecy | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.06 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.07 (0.04) | −0.06 (0.04) | −0.06 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.02) | −0.06 (0.04) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.06 (0.04) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.07 (0.04) |
Age 13 parent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | 0.04 (0.16) | 0.46 (0.07)* | 0.33 (0.09)* | 0.33 (0.11)* | 0.12 (0.10) | 0.45 (0.08)* | 0.39 (0.10)* | 0.10 (0.08) | 0.56 (0.07)* | 0.11 (0.13) | 0.24 (0.09)* | 0.04 (0.11) |
Solicitation | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.06 (0.03) | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.06 (0.04) | 0.06 (0.04) | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.06 (0.03) | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.08 (0.05) | 0.08 (0.05) | 0.07 (0.04) |
Age 13 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | −0.38 (0.14)* | 0.10 (0.08) | −0.05 (0.10) | −0.12 (0.11) | 0.17 (0.10) | −0.16 (0.09)+ | 0.18 (0.10) | −0.38 (0.08)* | −0.15 (0.09) | −0.23 (0.13) | −0.21 (0.11)* | −0.20 (0.10)+ |
Internalizing behavior | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.10 (0.04)* | 0.10 (0.04)* | 0.12 (0.05)* | 0.11 (0.04)* | 0.09 (0.01)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.10 (0.04)* | 0.11 (0.04)* | 0.10 (0.04)* | 0.12 (0.05)* | 0.08 (0.03)* |
Demographic covariates | ||||||||||||
Adolescent Male Gender | −0.31 (0.13) | −0.13 (0.08) | −0.16 (0.09) | −0.02 (0.09) | 0.02 (0.09) | −0.06 (0.09) | 0.14 (0.09) | −0.07 (0.08) | −0.12 (0.08) | −0.16 (0.11) | −0.25 (0.09)* | 0.20 (0.10)* |
Years of parent education | −0.20 (0.16) | −0.08 (0.08) | −0.04 (0.09) | 0.14 (0.09) | 0.13 (0.10) | 0.15 (0.08) | 0.13 (0.10) | −0.11 (0.07) | −0.15 (0.08) | 0.24 (0.12)* | 0.05 (0.10) | 0.04 (0.08) |
Age 13 predictors of age 15 parent solicitation | ||||||||||||
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | 0.08 (0.05)+ | 0.07 (0.04)* | 0.09 (0.04)* | 0.07 (0.04)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.07 (0.04)+ | 0.06 (0.03)* | 0.07 (0.04)* | 0.07 (0.04)* | 0.07 (0.04)* | 0.08 (0.04)* |
Secrecy | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.02 (0.02) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.05) |
Age 13 parent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | −0.02 (0.05) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) |
Solicitation | 0.21 (0.14) | 0.46 (0.07)* | 0.41 (0.08)* | 0.03 (0.10) | 0.38 (0.08)* | 0.29 (0.09)* | 0.48 (0.08)* | 0.21 (0.10)* | 0.42 (0.08)* | 0.52 (0.09)* | 0.26 (0.10)* | 0.13 (0.11) |
Age 13 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.05) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.04 (0.05) |
Internalizing behavior | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.04 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.04 (0.05) | −0.03 (03) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.04) |
Demographic covariates | ||||||||||||
Adolescent Male Gender | −0.06 (0.04) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.06 (0.04) | −0.06 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.06 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.06 (0.03) | −0.06 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.03) |
Years of parent education | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.04) | −0.05 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.02) | −0.02 (0.02) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.04) | −0.02 (0.02) |
Age 13 predictors of age 15 externalizing behavior | ||||||||||||
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | −0.04 (0.05) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) |
Secrecy | 0.11 (0.04)* | 0.08 (0.03)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.12 (0.05)* | 0.08 (0.03)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.05 (0.02)* | 0.07 (0.03)* | 0.06 (0.02)* | 0.06 (0.02)* | 0.05 (0.02)* | 0.08 (0.03)* |
Age 13 parent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | −0.07 (0.06) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.02) | −0.03 (0.02) | −0.03 (0.02) | −0.02 (0.02) | −0.02 (0.02) |
Solicitation | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.02 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.02 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.02 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.02 (0.03) | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.02 (0.03) |
Age 13 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | 0.39 (0.13)* | 0.48 (0.07)* | 0.70 (0.05)* | 0.17 (0.09)+ | 0.47 (0.08)* | 0.62 (0.06)* | 0.65 (0.06)* | 0.47 (0.07)* | 0.59 (0.06)* | 0.67 (0.07)* | 0.61 (0.06)* | 0.59 (0.06)* |
Internalizing behavior | 0.04 (0.05) | 0.03 (0.04) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.03 (0.04) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.02 (0.03) |
Demographic covariates | ||||||||||||
Adolescent Male Gender | −0.10 (0.04)* | −0.06 (0.03)* | −0.06 (0.03)* | −0.08 (0.04)* | −0.06 (0.03)* | −0.05 (0.02)* | −0.07 (0.03)* | −0.05 (0.02)* | −0.05 (0.02)* | −0.06 (0.03)* | −0.05 (0.02)* | −0.05 (0.02)* |
Years of parent education | −0.02 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.01) |
Age 13 predictors of age 15 internalizing behavior | ||||||||||||
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Disclosure | −0.06 (0.04) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.04) | −0.06 (0.04) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.04) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.04 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.04) |
Secrecy | −0.01 (0.10) | −0.06 (0.08) | 0.06 (0.07) | 0.08 (0.10) | −0.07 (0.08) | 0.04 (0.08) | 0.10 (0.10) | −0.03 (0.09) | −0.07 (0.08) | 0.11 (0.10) | 0.28 (0.07)* | 0.20 (0.07)* |
Age 13 adolescent communication patterns | ||||||||||||
Control | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.03 (0.03) |
Solicitation | 0.05 (0.04) | −0.03 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.05 (0.04) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.05 (0.04) |
Age 13 adolescent psychological problems | ||||||||||||
Externalizing behavior | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.02 (0.05) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.01 (0.04) | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.02 (0.05) |
Internalizing behavior | 0.35 (0.13)* | 0.57 (0.07)* | 0.58 (0.07)* | 0.19 (0.10)* | 0.65 (0.07)* | 0.57 (0.07)* | 0.49 (0.09)* | 0.46 (0.09)* | 0.63 (0.08)* | 0.61 (0.08)* | 0.45 (0.07)* | 0.39 (0.08)* |
Demographic covariates | ||||||||||||
Adolescent Male Gender | −0.16 (0.10) | −0.24 (0.07)* | −0.18 (0.08)* | −0.11 (0.08) | −0.09 (0.08) | −0.01 (0.08) | −0.17 (0.09)+ | −0.24 (0.08)* | −0.27 (0.08)* | −0.26 (0.08)* | −0.33 (0.07)* | −0.18 (0.07)* |
Years of parent education | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.02) |