Introduction
Method
Search Strategy
Study Selection and Inclusion Criteria
Data Extraction
Author | Sample | Sample size (Sex) | Sample age | Measures of TSR and anxiety | Findings relevant to TSR and anxiety | Other findings for gender and culture |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aldrup et al. [49] | German secondary school students (grades 5–7) | 1,559 (53% female) | Range = N/R M = 10.73, SD = 0.57 | Mathematics anxiety (subscales of worry and emotionality) Teacher sensitivity scale | Students who perceived higher teacher sensitivity reported less mathematics anxiety in the subsequent year. Parents also noticed that their children’s maths anxiety decreased when they had a teacher who was aware of individual academic and emotional needs | Girls reported higher math anxiety levels No gender differences found for teacher sensitivity |
Bieg et al. [66] | American and German students (Grade 8) | N = 870 (American = 425; 47% female) (German = 445; 52% female) | 11–16 years M = 13.7 SD = 0.65 12–16 years M = 13.8 SD = 0.64 | Perceived autonomy support Perceived teacher’s care anxiety scale | For German students, higher perceived teacher care was associated with significantly less anxiety | Compared to the German students, American students reported higher levels of anxiety, autonomy support and teacher’s care |
Clem et al. [58] | Adolescents in Finland | 854 (54% female) | Range = N/R M = 12.29 SD = 0.40 | Student–Teacher Relationships Scale (STRS) Achievement emotions Questionnaire (AEQ; anxiety subscale) | Teacher-student conflict was negatively related to enjoyment and positively related to anxiety For students with low effortful control, closer TSRs were associated with increased anxiety towards literacy learning. For students with high effortful control, anxiety towards literacy learning did not change as a function of teacher-student closeness | |
Conner et al. [61] | American high school students (grades 9–12) | 5,557 (55% female) | Range = N/R M = 15.64 SD = 1.20 | Academic worries scale Teacher support scale | Greater teacher support was associated with less academic anxiety, internalising symptoms and somatic symptoms related to school stress. Students who reported that more teachers supported them experienced less anxiety symptoms than those who reported that only some, a few, or none of their teachers supported them | |
Federici & Skaalvik [59] | Norwegian middle school students (grades 9 and 10) | 309 (52% female) | Range = N/R M = N/R | Scale of teacher emotional support Scale of teacher instrumental support Math anxiety Help-seeking behaviour | Instrumental support from teachers was related to reduced math anxiety and increased help-seeking behaviour Emotional support from teachers was not found to significantly relate to math anxiety | Female students showed higher help-seeking behaviours |
Fredrick et al. [36] | American middle school students (grades 6–8) | 169 (50% female) | Range = 11–15 M = 12.59 SD = N/R | Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASS; includes teacher-support subscale) Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale, Second Edition (RCMAS-2) | Boys with high levels of teacher support reported less anxiety than boys with low levels of teacher support. A significant effect was not found in girls | Girls reported higher levels of anxiety than boys |
Gairns et al. [62] | Australian High-school students (grades 7–10) | 374 (100% female) | 12–16 years M = 13.36 SD = 1.19 | Perceived Teacher Relatedness Support (i.e., the degree to which teachers displayed interpersonally involving behaviour) Teacher-focused Relation-Inferred Self-Efficacy (RISE) appraisals Social Anxiety scale | High teacher relatedness support was linked with decreased social anxiety, via teacher-focused self-efficacy (e.g., how confident they felt their teacher was in them) and motivation | |
Giota & Gustafsson [50] | Swedish secondary school students (grades 6–9) | 8,603 (49% female) | 13–16 years M = N/R | Worry (single item) Teacher relations (single item) | Positive relations with teachers in grade 6 protected against mental illness in grade 9, primarily through direct effects, but also through less stress and worry. Teacher–child conflict also contributed to internalising problems (stress and worry), which led to poor mental health outcomes | Worry increased from grade 6 to grade 9 Girls self-reported higher levels of stress and worry than boys |
Guo et al. [64] | Chinese middle school students | 1228 (46% female) | 11–20 years M = 15.43 SD = 1.76 | Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) Students’ Perception of Teacher’s Behavioural Support Questionnaire (SPTBSQ) | Teacher support was associated with decreased anxiety. Teacher support was also found to improve adolescent mental wellbeing by increasing resilience, affect control and help-seeking behaviours | |
Hoferichter & Raufelder [56] | German secondary school students (grade 8) | 513 (59% female) | 13–16 years M = 14.03 SD = 0.55 | Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA; teacher-student relationship subscale) | Negative correlations were observed between test anxiety and TSRs for girls only | Girls showed higher average levels of test anxiety compared to boys No gender differences were found for TSR’s |
Hoferichter et al. [46] | German secondary school students Canadian secondary school students (grades 7 and 8) | 1,088 (54% female) 389 (56% female) | 12–15 years M = 13.71 SD = 0.53 12–16 years M = 13.43 SD = 0.82 | Achievement Motivation for students (Test Anxiety subscale) PISA (teacher-student relationships subscale) | TSRs moderated the relationship between academic drive and test anxiety for German students. This moderation was not significant for Canadian students. Instead, high quality student–student relationships were found to decrease feelings of test anxiety in the Canadian sample | |
Huang [69] | International high schools students in America | 5,712 (50% female) | 15–16 years M = 15.81 SD = 0.29 | PISA (schoolwork-related anxiety and teacher unfairness subscales) | Teacher unfairness had a positive effect on schoolwork-related anxiety In addition, exposure to teacher unfairness led to increased schoolwork-related anxiety, which in turn reduced adolescent life satisfaction | |
Keçici [35] | Students in Turkey (grade 8) | 512 (59% female) | N/R | Neuroticism Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) Teacher-student relationships scale (In Landauer Skala zum Sozialklima; LASSO) | Positive TSRs were associated with lower test anxiety in girls only | Girls experienced higher levels of neuroticism and test anxiety |
Lapointe et al. [70] | Canadian students (grades 7 and 8) | 593 (50% female) | Grade 7: M = 13.72; SD = N/R Grade 8: M = 14.67 SD = N/R | Test anxiety scale of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction | For students with average grades, test anxiety reduced when maths teachers were perceived to be helping, friendly, and understanding, and increased when teachers were perceived to be uncertain and admonishing For students with high grades, test anxiety increased when maths teachers’ behaviours were perceived to be strict | Girls reported higher test anxiety than boys No gender differences found in perceptions of teachers |
Lin et al. [68] | Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Taiwan | 219 (12% female) | 11–18 years Non-victims: M = 13.7 SD = 2.1 Victims: M = 14.1 SD = 2.2 | Teacher Harassment Victimisation (self-report and parent-report) Taiwanese Version of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC-T) | Results indicated that victims of teacher harassment exhibited more severe anxiety than nonvictims | |
Liu [57] | Chinese high school students (grade 10–12) | 916 (55% female) | Range = N/R M = 17.6 SD = 0.6 | Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) School Climate scale (teacher-student relationship subscale) | TSRs negatively predicted test anxiety | Girls had higher scores on test anxiety than boys |
Luo et al. [48] | Chinese high school students | 950 (56% female) | 13–17 years M = 15.1 SD = 1.18 | Scale of Interpersonal Relationships in School (ISR; subscales measured harmonious/disharmonious relationship with teachers) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) | Harmonious relationships with teachers were associated with decreased anxiety, particularly for students whose parents were more absent Interviews with students also revealed that those whose parents were absent had greater ambivalence in their relationships with their teachers as they were afraid of being betrayed | Influence of interpersonal relationship in schools was greater for females than males |
Mainhard et al. [67] | Dutch secondary school students | 1,668 (48% female) | Range = N/R M = 14.94 SD = 1.44 | Academic Emotions Questionnaire (Anxiety subscale) Questionnaire for Teacher Interaction (QTI) | Teacher affection and warmth was associated with reduced student anxiety, while teacher interpersonal agency (i.e., perceived power) was related to increased student anxiety | Lower-achieving students and girls experienced slightly more anxiety than did high achievers and boys, respectively |
Palmgren et al. [55] | Finnish secondary school students (grade 7) | 119 (45% female) | 12–14 years M = N/R | ECW survey (subscales measured student’s emotional engagement in teacher-student relations and school-related anxiety) | Lower quality TSRs (unfair treatment and less emotional support) were associated with greater school-related anxiety. Further, being afraid of failing (anxiety-scale) was related to perceptions of not receiving enough feedback from teacher | No gender differences found |
Piechurska-Kuciel [8] | Secondary grammar school students in Poland | 621 (64% females) | 14–18 years M = 16.5 SD = N/R | Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale School Climate-Social Action Instrumental (included a teacher support subscale) | Students who reported higher levels of teacher support experienced significantly less anxiety in their foreign language class compared to peers with lower teacher support | |
Raufelder et al. [65] | German secondary school students (grade 9) | 845 (55% female) | 13–17 years M = 14.86 SD = 0.57 | Relationship and Motivation instrument (REMO; students appraisal of their teachers as motivators) German Test Anxiety Inventory (PAF) | Test anxiety and learned helplessness was moderated by perceived teacher motivational support. In particular, high teacher motivational support was associated with increased emotionality and worry (subscales of the test anxiety measure) and decreased feelings of helplessness | |
Raufelder et al. [47] | German secondary school students | 88 (50% female) | Range = N/R M = 15.03 SD = 0.51 | Teacher-Student Relationship Scale (TSR) Test Anxiety Questionnaire (PAF) | Students who reported a high quality TSR had stronger amygdala activity toward fearful faces, which was related to worry. Further, students with high neuroticism levels were more likely to perceive their teachers as motivators, and showed higher amygdala activity toward angry faces, which was related to emotionality | |
Raufelder et al. [34] | German secondary students (grades 7 and 8) | 1,088 (54% female) | 12–15 years M = 13.7 SD = 0.53 | Test Anxiety (subscale in the Achievement Motivation for Students) PISA (teacher-student relationship scale) | Students with higher test anxiety displayed greater socio-motivational dependence on teachers than less anxious classmates. Additionally, greater perceived positive motivation from teachers was associated with less test anxiety and more autonomous forms of academic self-regulation | |
Weymouth & Buehler [51] | American middle school students | 211 (51% female) | 11–14 years M = 11.86, SD = 0.69 | Social Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised (SASC-R) Teacher Support and Satisfaction Scale | Lower teacher support contributed to greater compliance with peers, which in turn increased social anxiety symptoms | No gender differences found |
Wit et al. [63] | Canadian High school students (grades 9–10) | 2,616 (54% female) | 12–16 years M = 13.77 SD = 0.54 | Social support for appraisals scale (SSAS; with a teacher support subscale) Generalised Social Avoidance and Distress subscale (SAD-G) | Adolescents who felt more supported by teachers experienced less social anxiety symptoms | No gender differences found |
Yıldırım [60] | Students in Turkey (grades 7–12) | 4,855 (43% female) | N/R | PISA (perceived teacher support scale) Maths anxiety scale | Greater perceived teacher support was associated with reduced maths anxiety | Girls reported higher levels of maths anxiety |
Synthesis Methods
Methodological Quality
Results
Study Characteristics
Quality Assessment
Author | Focused question | Adequate sample | Unlikely measurement bias | Appropriate design/confounds considered | Adequate analysis/interpretation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aldrup et al. [49] | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Bieg et al. [66] | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Clem et al. [58] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Conner et al. [61] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Federici & Skaalvik [59] | Yes | Yes | Unclear | Yes | Yes |
Fredrick et al. [36] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Gairns et al. [62] | Yes | Yes | Unclear | Yes | Yes |
Giota & Gustafsson [50] | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No |
Guo et al. [64] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Hoferichter & Raufelder [56] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Hoferichter et al. [46] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Huang [69] | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Keçici [35] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Piechurska-Kuciel [8] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Lapointe et al. [70] | Yes | Yes | Unclear | Yes | Yes |
Lin et al. [68] | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Liu [57] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Luo et al. [48] | Yes | Unclear | No | Yes | No |
Mainhard et al. [67] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Palmgren et al. [55] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Raufelder et al. [65] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Raufelder et al. [47] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Raufelder et al. [34] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Weymouth & Buehler [51] | Yes | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Wit et al. [63] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Yıldırım [60] | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Unclear |
Qualitative study | Focused question | Adequate sample | Unlikely bias | Appropriate design/ confounds considered | Adequate analysis/interpretation |
Luo et al. [48] | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | No |