Stress generation hypothesis
Assessment in stress generation research context
Limitations of current self-report measures of negative events
Purposes and hypotheses
Method
Participants
Measures
Procedure
Statistical analysis
Results
Descriptive statistics
Construct validity of the negative Independent/Dependent events Scale
n
|
M
|
SD
| Range | Skewness | Kurtosis | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Statistic |
SE
| Statistic |
SE
| ||||||||||||||
Negative interpersonal dependent events | 240 | 38.97 | 11.18 | 25–70 | 0.62 | 0.16 | –0.61 | 0.31 | |||||||||
Negative non-interpersonal dependent events | 243 | 25.22 | 6.05 | 14–48 | 0.67 | 0.16 | 0.46 | 0.31 | |||||||||
Negative independent events | 243 | 32.58 | 7.63 | 20–60 | 0.77 | 0.16 | 0.26 | 0.31 | |||||||||
Depressive symptoms | 240 | 13.65 | 10.63 | 0–52 | 1.12 | 0.16 | 1.13 | 0.31 | |||||||||
Reassurance-seeking behaviors | 244 | 22.58 | 8.08 | 6–40 | –0.26 | 0.16 | –0.48 | 0.31 | |||||||||
Inattention | 242 | 15.68 | 5.77 | 0–34 | 0.30 | 0.16 | 0.54 | 0.31 | |||||||||
Lack of perseverance | 246 | 23.71 | 4.90 | 12–39 | 0.10 | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.31 |
Selection of appropriate items for the short scale
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Negative interpersonal dependent events | – | |||||||||||
2. Negative non-interpersonal dependent events | 0.69 | – | ||||||||||
[0.63, 0.76] | ||||||||||||
3. Negative independent events | 0.69 | 0.68 | – | |||||||||
[0.62, 0.75] | [0.61, 0.74] | |||||||||||
4. Depressive symptoms | 0.45 | 0.47 | 0.33 | – | ||||||||
[0.35, 0.55] | [0.37, 0.57] | [0.22, 0.44] | ||||||||||
5. Reassurance-seeking behaviors | 0.45 | 0.42 | 0.33 | 0.43 | – | |||||||
[0.35, 0.55] | [0.32, 0.52] | [0.22, 0.44] | [0.33, 0.54] | |||||||||
6. Inattention | 0.45 | 0.61 | 0.38 | 0.56 | 0.40 | – | ||||||
[0.35, 0.55] | [0.53, 0.69] | [0.26, 0.49] | [0.47, 0.65] | [0.29, 0.51] | ||||||||
7. Lack of perseverance | 0.16 | 0.22 | 0.10 | 0.19 | 0.10 | 0.38 | ||||||
[0.04, 0.28] | [0.10, 0.34] | [–0.02, 0.23] | [0.07, 0.31] | [–0.03, 0.22] | [0.27, 0.49] |
Reassurance-seeking behaviors | Inattention | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I had a quarrel with my family member. | 0.29 | [0.18, 0.41] | 0.33 | [0.22, 0.44] | ||
I disagreed with a close person such as my friend or a lover. | 0.36 | [0.25, 0.47] | 0.26 | [0.14, 0.38] | ||
I was criticized or teased by my friends and colleagues about what I did. | 0.26 | [0.14, 0.38] | 0.11 | [–0.01, 0.24] | ||
I was criticized by others where I wasn’t. | 0.25 | [0.13, 0.37] | 0.19 | [0.06, 0.31] | ||
Others were worried due to my wrong behaviors. | 0.33 | [0.22, 0.44] | 0.33 | [0.21, 0.44] | ||
Others said or acted as if they did not trust me. | 0.37 | [0.26, 0.48] | 0.29 | [0.18, 0.41] | ||
I hurt others. | 0.33 | [0.21, 0.44] | 0.36 | [0.25, 0.47] | ||
I was pointed out or warned by my superiors that I had a bad attitude. | 0.12 | [–0.00, 0.24] | 0.21 | [0.09, 0.33] | ||
I offended others. | 0.37 | [0.27, 0.48] | 0.36 | [0.25, 0.47] | ||
I was left out of my friends. | 0.17 | [0.05, 0.29] | 0.28 | [0.16, 0.40] | ||
I was at the mercy of an acquaintance. | 0.31 | [0.19, 0.42] | 0.33 | [0.21, 0.44] | ||
I got into the troubles and problems of my friends. | 0.19 | [0.07, 0.31] | 0.08 | [–0.05, 0.21] | ||
Although I tried to get the attention of a person of the opposite gender, I was treated cold by him/her.
| 0.23 | [0.11, 0.35] | 0.10 | [–0.02, 0.23] | ||
I had a quarrel with or had a terrible relationship with my superior.
| 0.12 | [–0.00, 0.25] | 0.11 | [–0.02, 0.24] | ||
I couldn’t convey what I wanted to say to others. | 0.40 | [0.29, 0.51] | 0.42 | [0.32, 0.52] | ||
I was ridiculed by a friend
| 0.24 | [0.13, 0.36] | 0.26 | [0.15, 0.38] | ||
My relationship got worse at my part-time job
| 0.24 | [0.12, 0.36] | 0.15 | [0.03, 0.28] | ||
I couldn’t get along with my friends. | 0.25 | [0.14, 0.37] | 0.30 | [0.18, 0.42] | ||
When I pointed out other about his/her bad behaviors, I was counterattacked.
| 0.17 | [0.05, 0.29] | 0.18 | [0.06, 0.30] | ||
I had a fight or a quarrel with a close person such as friends and a lover. | 0.26 | [0.15, 0.38] | 0.20 | [0.08, 0.32] | ||
I broke up with my lover, or was turned down by a favorite person. | 0.06 | [–0.06, 0.19] | 0.07 | [–0.05, 0.20] | ||
I was ignored by or turned away from my friends.
| 0.23 | [0.11, 0.35] | 0.25 | [0.13, 0.38] | ||
I bothered others. | 0.36 | [0.25, 0.47] | 0.44 | [0.34, 0.54] | ||
I had a terrible relationship with my friend. | 0.20 | [0.08, 0.32] | 0.24 | [0.13, 0.36] | ||
I disagreed with my family. | 0.25 | [0.13, 0.36] | 0.37 | [0.26, 0.48] |
Reassurance-seeking behaviors | Inattention | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
It took a long time to finish the assignments such as reports. | 0.15 | [0.02, 0.27] | 0.33 | [0.21, 0.44] | ||
I could not finish assignments such as reports by the due date. | 0.09 | [–0.04, 0.21] | 0.27 | [0.15, 0.39] | ||
I wasn’t satisfied with my presentation. | 0.33 | [0.22, 0.45] | 0.36 | [0.25, 0.47] | ||
I was arrested for breaking the law including traffic violations and unpaid rides.
| 0.09 | [–0.04, 0.23] | 0.01 | [–0.14, 0.16] | ||
I left my stuff outside the house. | 0.27 | [0.15, 0.38] | 0.33 | [0.21, 0.44] | ||
I broke or lost something important. | 0.23 | [0.12, 0.35] | 0.31 | [0.19, 0.42] | ||
I didn’t have enough money, or was in debt.
| 0.26 | [0.15, 0.38] | 0.31 | [0.20, 0.43] | ||
I could not improve my hobbies or lessons as I expected. | 0.21 | [0.09, 0.33] | 0.32 | [0.20, 0.43] | ||
I had bad results in the exam. | 0.18 | [0.06, 0.30] | 0.24 | [0.12, 0.35] | ||
I have accumulated tasks that I have to do such as reports. | 0.24 | [0.12, 0.36] | 0.47 | [0.37, 0.57] | ||
I was in trouble about getting a job. | 0.20 | [0.08, 0.32] | 0.24 | [0.12, 0.36] | ||
The professor gave me a low rating when I made a presentation in class. | 0.25 | [0.14, 0.37] | 0.32 | [0.21, 0.43] | ||
My report was badly rated. | 0.22 | [0.10, 0.34] | 0.30 | [0.19, 0.42] | ||
I couldn’t go well with my learning, study, graduation, etc. | 0.32 | [0.20, 0.43] | 0.49 | [0.40, 0.59] |
Reassurance-seeking behaviors | Inattention | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
The neighborhood was noisy. | 0.16 | [0.04, 0.28] | 0.14 | [0.02, 0.26] | ||
I got into trouble with my relatives.
| 0.18 | [0.06, 0.31] | 0.17 | [0.05, 0.30] | ||
I was hit by a disaster such as heavy rain or heavy snow. | 0.15 | [0.03, 0.27] | 0.07 | [–0.05, 0.20] | ||
I had to wait for a long time at government offices, stores, banks, etc. | 0.12 | [–0.01, 0.24] | 0.25 | [0.13, 0.37] | ||
I was treated coldly at government offices, stores, banks, etc.
| 0.12 | [–0.00, 0.25] | 0.02 | [–0.11, 0.15] | ||
My family member or a close person were ill, injured, or died. | 0.13 | [0.01, 0.26] | 0.11 | [–0.02, 0.23] | ||
I was the victim of crime including theft and molester.
| 0.07 | [–0.06, 0.19] | 0.02 | [–0.10, 0.15] | ||
Others did something insane to me. | 0.26 | [0.14, 0.38] | 0.29 | [0.18, 0.41] | ||
The event that I was looking forward to was canceled or postponed. | 0.16 | [0.03, 0.28] | 0.20 | [0.08, 0.32] | ||
I was forced to practice hard in club or circle activities.
| 0.12 | [–0.01, 0.24] | 0.11 | [–0.01, 0.24] | ||
University facilities such as cafeterias and toilets were inconvenient. | 0.25 | [0.13, 0.37] | 0.23 | [0.12, 0.35] | ||
My friend or a lover have moved far away.
| 0.06 | [–0.06, 0.19] | –0.02 | [–0.15, 0.11] | ||
The product I purchased was defective.
| 0.16 | [0.03, 0.28] | 0.19 | [0.06, 0.32] | ||
Many exams and assignments were imposed in my classes. | 0.21 | [0.09, 0.33] | 0.32 | [0.21, 0.43] | ||
The household budget in my family has deteriorated. | 0.11 | [–0.01, 0.24] | 0.19 | [0.06, 0.31] | ||
I had to make an unexpected expense. | 0.24 | [0.12, 0.35] | 0.38 | [0.27, 0.48] | ||
Classroom discipline such as being quiet during the class was not observed. | 0.15 | [0.02, 0.27] | 0.16 | [0.03, 0.28] | ||
I heard that there was a trouble in my family.
| 0.23 | [0.11, 0.35] | 0.33 | [0.22, 0.44] | ||
Suspensions or delays occurred in public transportation such as trains or buses when I used them. | 0.13 | [0.01, 0.26] | 0.11 | [–0.02, 0.23] | ||
There was a traffic jam. | 0.09 | [–0.04, 0.21] | 0.13 | [0.01, 0.25] |
Discussion
Validity of Negative Independent/Dependent Events Scale
Preliminary items of the short scale
1 | 2 | 3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Negative interpersonal dependent events (15 items) | – | |||||
2. Negative non-interpersonal dependent events (12 items) | 0.66 | – | ||||
[0.59, 0.73] | ||||||
3. Negative independent events (9 items) | 0.53 | 0.52 | – | |||
[0.44, 0.62] | [0.43, 0.61] | |||||
4. Depressive symptoms | 0.51 | 0.45 | 0.27 | |||
[0.42, 0.61] | [0.35, 0.55] | [0.15, 0.38] | ||||
5. Reassurance-seeking behaviors | 0.49 | 0.41 | 0.26 | |||
[0.39, 0.58] | [0.31, 0.51] | [0.14, 0.38] | ||||
6. Inattention | 0.48 | 0.61 | 0.29 | |||
[0.39, 0.58] | [0.53, 0.69] | [0.18, 0.41] | ||||
7. Lack of perseverance | 0.16 | 0.20 | 0.07 | |||
[0.04, 0.28] | [0.08, 0.32] | [–0.06, 0.19] |