Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in: Psychological Research 5/2020

02-01-2019 | Original Article

The eyes do not have it after all? Attention is not automatically biased towards faces and eyes

Auteurs: Effie J. Pereira, Elina Birmingham, Jelena Ristic

Gepubliceerd in: Psychological Research | Uitgave 5/2020

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Abstract

It is commonly accepted that attention is spontaneously biased towards faces and eyes. However, the role of stimulus features and task settings in this finding has not yet been systematically investigated. Here, we tested if faces and facial features bias attention spontaneously when stimulus factors, task properties, response conditions, and eye movements are controlled. In three experiments, participants viewed face, house, and control scrambled face–house images in an upright and inverted orientation. The task was to discriminate a target that appeared with equal probability at the previous location of the face, house, or the control image. In all experiments, our data indicated no spontaneous biasing of attention for targets occurring at the previous location of the face. Experiment 3, which measured oculomotor biasing, suggested a reliable but infrequent saccadic bias towards the eye region of upright faces. Importantly, these results did not reflect our specific laboratory settings, as in Experiment 4, we present a full replication of a classic finding in the literature demonstrating reliable social attention bias. Together, these data suggest that attentional biasing for social information is task and context mediated, and less robust than originally thought.
Voetnoten
1
We thank Markus Bindemann for providing us with the original stimuli.
 
2
Twenty-eight additional naïve participants were asked to rate images of various faces and houses using a Likert scale ranging from 1- Very Unattractive to 6- Very Attractive. The Face and House images that were used here received equivalent attractiveness ratings (Face M = 2.93, SD = 0.77; House M = 2.96, SD = 0.96), which did not differ statistically, t(27) = 0.17, p = 0.87, dz = 0.03.
 
3
Confirming no speed-accuracy tradeoffs, an additional ANOVA examining mean accuracy rates with the same factors confirmed higher overall accuracy for short relative to long cue-target intervals [Cue-target interval, F(3,87)=9.23, p < 0.001, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) = 0.24; 250 ms vs. 560 ms and 1000 ms, ts > 3.36, ps < 0.01, dzs > 0.61; 360 ms vs. 1000 ms, t(29)=2.78, p = 0.036, dz = 0.51; all other ps > 0.07, dzs < 0.44] and overall lowest accuracy for targets appearing at the location of the neutral cues [Target position, F(5,145)=29.74, p < 0.001, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) = 0.51; upper and lower neutral vs. all, ts > 5.48, ps < 0.001, dzs > 1.00; all other ps > 0.56, dzs < 0.33]. A significant interaction between Cue orientation and Face position, F(1,29)=4.46, p = 0.043, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) = 0.13, indicated lower overall accuracy when inverted faces were presented in the right visual field, t(29)=3.29, p = 0.006, dz = 0.60; other p = 0.76, dz = 0.06. No other effects involving Face position and Target position were significant, Fs < 2.80, ps > 0.11, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) < 0.08.
 
4
Analyses of response accuracy once again indicated no speed-accuracy trade-offs. The ANOVA returned a marginal main effect of Cue-target interval, F(3,87)=2.67, p = 0.052, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) = 0.08, with higher accuracy for targets appearing at short relative to long cue-target intervals [250 ms vs. 1000 ms, t(29)=2.83, p = 0.048, dz = 0.52; all other ps > 0.34, dzs < 0.35]. A main effect of Target position, F(5,145)=45.18, p < 0.001, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) = 0.61, once again indicated lower accuracy for targets at the previous location of both neutral cues [upper and lower neutral vs. all, ts > 5.90, ps < 0.001, dzs > 1.08]. Lower accuracy was also found for targets occurring at the previous location of the mouth vs. eye cues, t(29) = 3.11, p = 0.028, dz = 0.57; all other ps > 0.10, dzs < 0.46. No other effects or interactions were reliable, all Fs < 1.63, ps > 0.18, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) < 0.05.
 
5
No speed-accuracy trade-off was evident. The same ANOVA conducted on accuracy revealed a main effect of Target position, F(5,145)=15.74, p < 0.001, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) = 0.35, with lower accuracy for targets appearing in the previous location of the upper and lower neutral cues vs. all others [ts > 3.60, ps < 0.008, dzs > 0.66; all other ps > 0.99, dzs < 0.25]. An interaction between Cue orientation and Target position, F(5,145) = 3.42, p = 0.006, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) = 0.11, indicated lower accuracy for targets that occurred at the previous location of the neutral cues (upper, lower) vs. the eyes, mouth, and house top for upright cues [ts > 3.60, ps < 0.011, dzs > 0.66; all other ps > 0.24, dzs < 0.43] and lower accuracy for targets that occurred at the previous location of both neutral cues (upper, lower) vs. the eyes, mouth, and house bottom for inverted cues [ts > 3.57, ps < 0.011, dzs > 0.65; all other ps > 0.30, dzs < 0.40]. No other main effects or interactions were found, all other Fs < 2.64, ps > 0.12, \(\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}\) < 0.08.
 
Literatuur
go back to reference Anderson, C. J., Colombo, J., & Shaddy, J. (2006). Visual scanning and pupillary responses in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 1238–1256.CrossRefPubMed Anderson, C. J., Colombo, J., & Shaddy, J. (2006). Visual scanning and pupillary responses in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 1238–1256.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Ariga, A., & Arihara, K. (2017b). Visual attention is captured by task-trrelevant faces, but not by pareidolia faces. Paper presented at the 2017 9th International Conference on Knowledge and Smart Technology (KST), Chonburi, Thailand. Ariga, A., & Arihara, K. (2017b). Visual attention is captured by task-trrelevant faces, but not by pareidolia faces. Paper presented at the 2017 9th International Conference on Knowledge and Smart Technology (KST), Chonburi, Thailand.
go back to reference Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: an essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.CrossRef Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: an essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.CrossRef
go back to reference Bindemann, M., Burton, A. M., Hooge, I. T. C., Jenkins, R., & DeHaan, E. H. F (2005). Faces retain attention. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(6), 1048–1053.CrossRef Bindemann, M., Burton, A. M., Hooge, I. T. C., Jenkins, R., & DeHaan, E. H. F (2005). Faces retain attention. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(6), 1048–1053.CrossRef
go back to reference Birmingham, E., Bischof, W., & Kingstone, A. (2007). Why do we look at people’s eyes? Journal of Eye Movement Research, 1(1), 1–6. Birmingham, E., Bischof, W., & Kingstone, A. (2007). Why do we look at people’s eyes? Journal of Eye Movement Research, 1(1), 1–6.
go back to reference Birmingham, E., Bischof, W., & Kingstone, A. (2008b). Social attention and real-world scenes: The roles of action, competition and social content. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(7), 986–998.CrossRefPubMed Birmingham, E., Bischof, W., & Kingstone, A. (2008b). Social attention and real-world scenes: The roles of action, competition and social content. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(7), 986–998.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Birmingham, E., Ristic, J., & Kingstone, A. (2012). Investigating social attention: A case for increasing stimulus complexity in the laboratory. In Cognitive neuroscience, development, and psychopathology: Typical and atypical developmental trajectories of attention (pp. 251–276). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRef Birmingham, E., Ristic, J., & Kingstone, A. (2012). Investigating social attention: A case for increasing stimulus complexity in the laboratory. In Cognitive neuroscience, development, and psychopathology: Typical and atypical developmental trajectories of attention (pp. 251–276). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRef
go back to reference Boggia, J., & Ristic, J. (2015). Social event segmentation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(4), 731–744.CrossRef Boggia, J., & Ristic, J. (2015). Social event segmentation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(4), 731–744.CrossRef
go back to reference Cerf, M., Harel, J., Einhäuser, W., & Koch, C. (2008). Predicting human gaze using low-level saliency combined with face detection. Paper presented at the Advances in neural information processing systems. Cerf, M., Harel, J., Einhäuser, W., & Koch, C. (2008). Predicting human gaze using low-level saliency combined with face detection. Paper presented at the Advances in neural information processing systems.
go back to reference Cooper, R. M., & Langton, S. R. Attentional bias to angry faces using the dot-probe task? It depends when you look for it. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 44(9), 1321–1329. Cooper, R. M., & Langton, S. R. Attentional bias to angry faces using the dot-probe task? It depends when you look for it. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 44(9), 1321–1329.
go back to reference Devue, C., Belopolsky, A. V., & Theeuwes, J. (2012). Oculomotor guidance and capture by irrelevant faces. PLoS One. 7(4), e34598. Devue, C., Belopolsky, A. V., & Theeuwes, J. (2012). Oculomotor guidance and capture by irrelevant faces. PLoS One. 7(4), e34598.
go back to reference Emery, N. J. (2000). The eyes have it: The neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 581–604.CrossRef Emery, N. J. (2000). The eyes have it: The neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 581–604.CrossRef
go back to reference Findlay, J. M. (2003). Visual Selection, Covert Attention and Eye Movements. In J. M. Findlay & I. D. Gilchrist (Eds.), Active vision: The psychology of looking and seeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRef Findlay, J. M. (2003). Visual Selection, Covert Attention and Eye Movements. In J. M. Findlay & I. D. Gilchrist (Eds.), Active vision: The psychology of looking and seeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRef
go back to reference Gauthier, I., Tarr, M. J., Moylan, J., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Anderson, A. W. (2000). The fusiform “face area” is part of a network that processes faces at the individual level. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(3), 495–504.CrossRefPubMed Gauthier, I., Tarr, M. J., Moylan, J., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Anderson, A. W. (2000). The fusiform “face area” is part of a network that processes faces at the individual level. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(3), 495–504.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Haxby, J. V., Norwitz, B., Ungerleider, L. G., Maisog, J. M., Pietrini, P., & Grady, C. L. (1994). The functional organization of human extrastriate cortex: A PET-rCBF study of selective attention to faces and locations. The Journal of Neuroscience, 14(11), 6336–6353.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Haxby, J. V., Norwitz, B., Ungerleider, L. G., Maisog, J. M., Pietrini, P., & Grady, C. L. (1994). The functional organization of human extrastriate cortex: A PET-rCBF study of selective attention to faces and locations. The Journal of Neuroscience, 14(11), 6336–6353.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
go back to reference Hayward, D. A., Voorhies, W., Morris, J. L., Capozzi, F., & Ristic, J. (2017). Staring reality in the face: A comparison of social attention across laboratory and real world measures suggests little common ground. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(3), 212–225.CrossRefPubMed Hayward, D. A., Voorhies, W., Morris, J. L., Capozzi, F., & Ristic, J. (2017). Staring reality in the face: A comparison of social attention across laboratory and real world measures suggests little common ground. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(3), 212–225.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Hochberg, J., & Galper, R. E. (1967). Recognition of faces: An exploratory study. Psychonomic Science, 9, 619–620.CrossRef Hochberg, J., & Galper, R. E. (1967). Recognition of faces: An exploratory study. Psychonomic Science, 9, 619–620.CrossRef
go back to reference Holm, S. (1979). A simple sequential rejective multiple test procedure. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6, 65–70. Holm, S. (1979). A simple sequential rejective multiple test procedure. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6, 65–70.
go back to reference Jonides, J. (1981). Voluntary versus automatic control over the mind’s eye’s movement. In J. B. Long & A. D. Baddeley (Eds.), Attention and performance (Vol (IX, pp. 187–203). Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Jonides, J. (1981). Voluntary versus automatic control over the mind’s eye’s movement. In J. B. Long & A. D. Baddeley (Eds.), Attention and performance (Vol (IX, pp. 187–203). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
go back to reference Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17(11), 4302–4311.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17(11), 4302–4311.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
go back to reference Klein, R. M., & MacInnes, W. J. (1999). Inhibition of return is a foraging facilitator in visual search. Psychological Science, 10, 346–352.CrossRef Klein, R. M., & MacInnes, W. J. (1999). Inhibition of return is a foraging facilitator in visual search. Psychological Science, 10, 346–352.CrossRef
go back to reference Klein, R. M., & Pontefract, A. (1994). Does oculomotor readiness mediate cognitive control of visual attention? Revisited! In Attention and performance 15: Conscious and nonconscious information processing (pp. 333–350). Cambridge: The MIT Press. Klein, R. M., & Pontefract, A. (1994). Does oculomotor readiness mediate cognitive control of visual attention? Revisited! In Attention and performance 15: Conscious and nonconscious information processing (pp. 333–350). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
go back to reference Kobayashi, H., & Kohshima, S. (2001). Unique morphology of the human eye and its adaptive meaning: Comparative studies on external morphology of the primate eye. Journal of Human Evolution, 40, 419–435.CrossRefPubMed Kobayashi, H., & Kohshima, S. (2001). Unique morphology of the human eye and its adaptive meaning: Comparative studies on external morphology of the primate eye. Journal of Human Evolution, 40, 419–435.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Laidlaw, K. E. W., Risko, E. F., & Kingstone, A. (2012). A new look at social attention: orienting to the eyes is not (entirely) under volitional control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 38(5), 1132–1143. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027075.CrossRef Laidlaw, K. E. W., Risko, E. F., & Kingstone, A. (2012). A new look at social attention: orienting to the eyes is not (entirely) under volitional control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 38(5), 1132–1143. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1037/​a0027075.CrossRef
go back to reference Lavie, N., Ro, T., & Russell, C. (2003). The role of perceptual load in processing distractor faces. Psychological Science, 14, 510–515.CrossRefPubMed Lavie, N., Ro, T., & Russell, C. (2003). The role of perceptual load in processing distractor faces. Psychological Science, 14, 510–515.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference MacLeod, C., Mathews, A. M., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15–20.CrossRefPubMed MacLeod, C., Mathews, A. M., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15–20.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference McPartland, J. C., Webb, S. J., Keehn, B., & Dawson, G. (2011). Patterns of visual attention to faces and objects in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(2), 148–157.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral McPartland, J. C., Webb, S. J., Keehn, B., & Dawson, G. (2011). Patterns of visual attention to faces and objects in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(2), 148–157.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
go back to reference Navon, D., & Margalit, B. (1983). Allocation of attention according to informativeness in visual recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35, 497–512.CrossRef Navon, D., & Margalit, B. (1983). Allocation of attention according to informativeness in visual recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35, 497–512.CrossRef
go back to reference Perrett, D. I., Hietanen, J. K., Oram, M. W., Benson, P. J., & Rolls, E. T. (1992). Organization and functions of cells responsive to faces in the temporal cortex [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 335(1273), 23–30.CrossRefPubMed Perrett, D. I., Hietanen, J. K., Oram, M. W., Benson, P. J., & Rolls, E. T. (1992). Organization and functions of cells responsive to faces in the temporal cortex [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 335(1273), 23–30.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Perrett, D. I., Smith, P. A. J., Potter, D. D., Mistlin, A. J., Head, A. S., Milner, A. D., & Jeeves, M. A. (1985). Visual cells in the temporal cortex sensitive to face view and gaze direction. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 223(1232), 293–317.CrossRefPubMed Perrett, D. I., Smith, P. A. J., Potter, D. D., Mistlin, A. J., Head, A. S., Milner, A. D., & Jeeves, M. A. (1985). Visual cells in the temporal cortex sensitive to face view and gaze direction. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 223(1232), 293–317.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Puce, A., Allison, T., Bentin, S., Gore, J. C., & McCarthy, G. (1998). Temporal cortex activation in humans viewing eye and mouth movements. The Journal of Neuroscience, 18(6), 2188–2199.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Puce, A., Allison, T., Bentin, S., Gore, J. C., & McCarthy, G. (1998). Temporal cortex activation in humans viewing eye and mouth movements. The Journal of Neuroscience, 18(6), 2188–2199.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
go back to reference Ro, T., Russell, C., & Lavie, N. (2001). Changing faces: A detection advantage in the flicker paradigm. Psychological Science, 12(1), 94–99.CrossRefPubMed Ro, T., Russell, C., & Lavie, N. (2001). Changing faces: A detection advantage in the flicker paradigm. Psychological Science, 12(1), 94–99.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Schaller, M., Park, J. H., & Kenrick, D. T. (2007). Human evolution & social cognition. In R. I. M. Dunbar & L. Barrett (Eds.), Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schaller, M., Park, J. H., & Kenrick, D. T. (2007). Human evolution & social cognition. In R. I. M. Dunbar & L. Barrett (Eds.), Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
go back to reference Smith, T. J. (2013). Watching you watch movies: Using eye tracking to inform film theory. Smith, T. J. (2013). Watching you watch movies: Using eye tracking to inform film theory.
go back to reference Tomalski, P., Johnson, M. H., & Csibra, G. (2009). Temporal-nasal asymmetry of rapid orienting to face-like stimuli. NeuroReport, 20(15), 1309–1312.CrossRefPubMed Tomalski, P., Johnson, M. H., & Csibra, G. (2009). Temporal-nasal asymmetry of rapid orienting to face-like stimuli. NeuroReport, 20(15), 1309–1312.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Van der Stigchel, S., & Theeuwes, J. (2007). The relationship between covert and overt attention in endogenous cuing. Perception & Psychophysics, 69(5), 719–731.CrossRef Van der Stigchel, S., & Theeuwes, J. (2007). The relationship between covert and overt attention in endogenous cuing. Perception & Psychophysics, 69(5), 719–731.CrossRef
go back to reference Vuilleumier, P. (2000). Faces call for attention: evidence from patients with visual extinction. Neuropsychologia, 38, 693–700.CrossRefPubMed Vuilleumier, P. (2000). Faces call for attention: evidence from patients with visual extinction. Neuropsychologia, 38, 693–700.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Wu, D. W.-L., Bischof, W. F., & Kingstone, A. (2013). Looking while eating: The importance of social context to social attention. Scientific Reports, 3, 2356.CrossRefPubMed Wu, D. W.-L., Bischof, W. F., & Kingstone, A. (2013). Looking while eating: The importance of social context to social attention. Scientific Reports, 3, 2356.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Yin, R. K. (1969). Looking at upside-down faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81(1), 141–145.CrossRef Yin, R. K. (1969). Looking at upside-down faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81(1), 141–145.CrossRef
go back to reference Yovel, G., Levy, J., Grabowecky, M., & Paller, K. A. (2003). Neural correlates of the left-visual-field superiority in face perception appear at multiple stages of face processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15(3), 462–474.CrossRefPubMed Yovel, G., Levy, J., Grabowecky, M., & Paller, K. A. (2003). Neural correlates of the left-visual-field superiority in face perception appear at multiple stages of face processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15(3), 462–474.CrossRefPubMed
Metagegevens
Titel
The eyes do not have it after all? Attention is not automatically biased towards faces and eyes
Auteurs
Effie J. Pereira
Elina Birmingham
Jelena Ristic
Publicatiedatum
02-01-2019
Uitgeverij
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Gepubliceerd in
Psychological Research / Uitgave 5/2020
Print ISSN: 0340-0727
Elektronisch ISSN: 1430-2772
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1130-4

Andere artikelen Uitgave 5/2020

Psychological Research 5/2020 Naar de uitgave