Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in:

Open Access 17-09-2024

Temperamental Shyness, Peer Competence, and Loneliness in Middle Childhood: The Role of Positive Emotion

Auteurs: Qiong Wu, Karina Jalapa, Chorong Lee, Xinyun Kaikai Zhang, Mickey Langlais

Gepubliceerd in: Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology | Uitgave 12/2024

share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail
insite
ZOEKEN

Abstract

Guided by the conceptual frameworks of social withdrawal (Rubin, K. H., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2021). Perspectives on social withdrawal in childhood: Past, present, and prospects. Child Development Perspectives, 15(3), 160–167.) and emotion socialization (Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273.; Morris, (A) S., Criss, M. M., Silk, J. S., & Houltberg, (B) J. (2017). The impact of parenting on emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 11(4), 233–238.), the current study examined multifaceted relations among temperamental shyness, peer competence, and loneliness and focused on the role of socializing and expressing positive emotion in middle childhood. Participants included 1,364 families, among whom mothers reported children’s temperament when children were 4.5 years old. Mothers and alternative caregivers (usually fathers) independently rated family expressiveness when children were 8–9 years old. Mothers rated their children’s peer competence, and children’s positive affect with peers were observed when children were ages 8–9 and 10–11. Children self-rated their loneliness levels at ages 10–11. A path model revealed a moderated mediation effect, such that family positive expressiveness moderated the sequential mediation pathway from child temperamental shyness through child peer competence at ages 8–9 and positive affect with peers at ages 10–11 to loneliness at ages 10–11. This sequential mediation was significant only under low but not high levels of family positive expressiveness. Findings support the importance of socializing positive emotion in the context of temperamental shyness and have implications for family-based intervention strategies aimed at children exhibiting high temperamental shyness.
Opmerkingen

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10802-024-01246-1.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Middle childhood, typically spanning from ages 6 to 12, represents a critical developmental period characterized by significant socio-emotional growth and increased peer interactions (Valiente et al., 2020). During this stage, children navigate various social challenges, including forming friendships, establishing peer competence, and managing feelings of loneliness (Bornstein et al., 2010; Eisenberg et al., 2003). Temperamental shyness, characterized by social reticence and anxiety in social situations and usually emerging in early childhood, can significantly impact peer relationships and emotional well-being during middle childhood (Eggum-Wilkens et al., 2015). Understanding the multifaceted relations among temperamental shyness, peer competence, and loneliness is crucial for unpacking the complexities of children’s socio-emotional well-being in middle childhood.
The current study focused on a less understood aspect of children’s social development: the role of socializing and expressing positive emotion in the context of temperamental shyness, guided by the conceptual frameworks of social withdrawal (Rubin & Chronis-Tuscano, 2021) and emotion socialization (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2017). By investigating the role of positive emotion among temperamentally shy children, this study tapped into important inquiries on possible pathways to reduce adverse outcomes (such as low peer competence and loneliness) for children high in temperamental shyness. Findings from this study have significant implications for early intervention strategies aimed at children exhibiting high levels of temperamental shyness.

Conceptual Perspectives on Temperamental Shyness, Peer Competence, and Loneliness

The developmental context and outcomes of temperamental shyness can be examined under the guidance of Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano’s (2021) conceptual framework for social withdrawal. Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano (2021) incorporated a developmental perspective for children high in shyness across critical childhood stages. More specifically, they highlighted that temperamental shyness usually develops and stabilizes in early childhood. This temperament can be linked to adverse behavioral, emotional, and social outcomes in middle childhood. In particular, preschoolers exhibiting temperamental shyness often display hesitance in initiating social interactions, experience discomfort in unfamiliar settings, and exhibit heightened physiological arousal in social situations (Eggum-Wilkens et al., 2015). These tendencies may stem from various factors, including genetic predispositions, environmental influences, and caregiving experiences (Eggum‐Wilkens et al., 2015; Rubin & Chronis-Tuscano, 2021).
Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano (2021) also laid out the developmental trajectories for children high in shyness. They stated that early temperamental shyness usually presents a series of cascading effects. Children high in temperamental shyness are at heightened risks for adverse social outcomes across significant developmental stages. For example, they tend to demonstrate lowered peer skills and relationships in early-to-middle childhood and then loneliness in late childhood. Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano’s (2021) conceptual framework is supported by extensive evidence, as detailed below.
In the U.S. culture, children high in temperamental shyness may face challenges navigating social interactions and forming adaptive peer relationships during middle childhood. Peer competence, the ability to establish and maintain positive relationships with peers, plays a pivotal role in children’s social development and emotional well-being. Peer competence encompasses various socio-emotional skills, including effective communication, perspective-taking, empathy, and conflict resolution (Parke et al., 1992). Children with high levels of peer competence often exhibit prosocial behaviors, such as cooperation, sharing, and empathy, fostering positive peer interactions and social acceptance (Bornstein et al., 2010; Trentacosta & Fine, 2010). In contrast, children high in temperamental shyness may experience difficulties initiating and sustaining friendships, navigating social conflicts, and participating in group activities (Buck & Dix, 2012; Penela et al., 2015). As such, research tends to find a negative link between high temperamental shyness and peer competence, especially with unfamiliar peers (e.g., Bornstein et al., 2010; Penela et al., 2015). For example, Penela et al. (2015) found that observed and reported behavioral inhibition (strong temperamental reactivity to novelty, highly correlated with shyness) among preschoolers was prospectively linked with social competence with unfamiliar peers. However, other researchers suggest that children high in shyness may show more adaptive social behaviors with familiar peers in comparison to unfamiliar peers. For example, Rubin et al. (2006) found that peer-nominated shy 11-year-olds had mutual stable friends similar to non-shy children. Fleece et al. (2024) also observed that some behaviorally inhibited preschoolers made friends at rates similar to non-inhibited children. Hassan and Schmidt (2023) further suggested that parent-rated shyness was linked to negative social support seeking within an unfamiliar context, but positively linked with social support seeking in a familiar context. Together, evidence suggests that temperamental shyness may partially negatively affect peer competence, at least in the aspects relating to initiating social interactions with unfamiliar peers, and moderators exist in such relations.
As Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano (2021) suggested, early temperamental shyness and lowered peer competence are likely linked to negative developmental outcomes such as loneliness in middle childhood. Loneliness represents a subjective experience characterized by feelings of social isolation, emptiness, and disconnection from others and can result from social withdrawal and exclusion (Asher & Paquette, 2003; Jacob et al., 2014). Middle childhood is marked by heightened sensitivity to social relationships, where children increasingly value peer acceptance and belongingness (Bornstein et al., 2010; Jacob et al., 2014). Children high in temperamental shyness may be particularly susceptible to loneliness due to their struggles initiating new relationships and exhibiting social withdrawal behaviors (Qualter et al., 2013; Schinka et al., 2013). Feelings of loneliness can have profound implications for children’s socio-emotional well-being, contributing to adverse outcomes such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem in adolescence and adulthood (Qualter et al., 2013; Schinka et al., 2013). Together, understanding the developmental pathway to loneliness in middle childhood requires a multifaceted approach that acknowledges the complex associations among individual temperament, peer relationships, and also importantly, emotional experiences among children.

Family Socialization of Positive Emotion

Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano’s (2021) conceptual model is valuable because it draws upon the emotional processes of children high in shyness. Past research has highlighted the implications of emotional processes for children with high shyness (Trentacosta & Fine, 2010). For example, physiological emotion regulation and overprotective parenting moderated the links between shy and fearful temperament in early childhood and social skills with familiar peers in middle childhood (Hastings et al., 2014). Emotion regulation during a disappointment task buffered the link between behavioral inhibition in early childhood and social behaviors with unfamiliar peers in middle childhood (Penela et al., 2015). Emotion recognition buffered the link between parent-rated shyness and teacher-rated anxiety-withdrawal and peer rejection among Italian preschoolers (Sette et al., 2016).
Current research at the intersection of emotion and peer relationships has often focused on negative affective experiences such as fear, anxiety, and sadness (e.g., Penela et al., 2015; Tarullo et al., 2011), with a limited understanding of the role of positive emotion. In fact, Lougheed et al. (2020) assessed emotion socialization through affective exchanges during conversations about emotion-laden events between mothers and young teen girls (13–16 years old). Daughters’ positive expressions during a conversation about worried/sad events were associated with their lower social anxiety (Lougheed et al., 2020). This study seemingly indicated that socializing positive emotion is essential to buffer against social anxiety.
Presumably, emotion socialization, which refers to how children learn to understand, express, and regulate their emotion within the social context of their family and other agents (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2017), may contribute to peer competence. Models of emotion socialization (e.g., Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2017) suggest that socialization of emotion (especially positive ones) can enhance children’s socio-emotional competence and buffer against negative consequences. Emotion socialization begins early in life, typically within the family environment, where parents serve as primary agents in shaping children’s emotional understanding and regulation. Parents may engage in various emotion socialization practices, including modeling emotional expression, discussing emotion, and providing guidance on appropriate emotional responses to different situations (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2017).
One important socialization strategy toward positive emotion can be through the familial emotional atmosphere, such as the expressiveness of positive emotion in the family (Halberstadt & Eaton, 2002; Morris et al., 2017). By fostering a positive emotional atmosphere, parents can model the expression of positive feelings, share joyful activities, promote resilience, and increase bonds among family members. A meta-analysis also showed that positive family expressiveness was related to children’s positive expressiveness across the early and middle childhood periods (Halberstadt & Eaton, 2002).
In addition, socializing positive emotion may not only directly increase children’s expression of positive emotion in a peer context, but also indirectly benefit children’s peer competence. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998) suggests that positive emotion can broaden one’s thought-action repertoires and serve as a psychological resource for people. In comparison to most negative emotions, which usually limit one’s behavioral repertoires to a few viable options and urge an individual to take immediate actions when facing threats, positive emotions can benefit one indirectly and in the long term, because broadening widens the mindset so that one has access to a wide array of solutions and thus builds enduring resources for future threats. In this way, socializing positive emotion is expected to broaden one’s social competence because it adds to one’s possible social repertoires and serves as a resource for one to navigate tricky social situations. As such, researchers found that parental positive expressiveness was linked with children’s social competence (popularity and socially adaptive behaviors) through children’s emotion regulation in middle childhood (Eisenberg et al., 2003).

Positive Emotion in the Context of Temperamental Shyness

As Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano (2021) pointed out, moderators likely exist to explain the association between child temperamental shyness and their social behaviors, as children’s past social interactions and experiences play a critical role. In particular, familial socialization of positive emotion may have a buffering effect in promoting peer competence and eventually alleviating feelings of loneliness among children high in temperamental shyness. Although no known study has explicitly examined this moderating association, past studies have shown that parenting practices alleviated the adverse effects of temperamental shyness on social skills (Hastings et al., 2014), social anxiety (Suarez et al., 2021), prosocial behaviors (Cornell & Frick, 2007), and internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems (Ryan & Ollendick, 2018). However, empirical evidence is needed to identify the effect of socializing positive emotion in mitigating the needs and challenges that children with high temperamental shyness face.
With the socialization of positive emotion in the family, it is likely that children with more positive expressions engage in more adaptive peer relationships, encounter less rejection, and gain more confidence when interacting with familiar and unfamiliar peers, thus increasing peer competence. For example, children who showed more positive emotion in the classroom and at school lunch had higher peer acceptance and school engagement in kindergarten (Hernández et al., 2016). Moreover, it is likely that children with higher peer competence levels also show more positive emotion when interacting with peers. Although no known study directly examined this association, past research has shown promising evidence. For example, in a daily diary study, peer support was linked with positive affect in adolescents (Weinstein et al., 2006). Less expression of positive affect was related to social anxiety symptoms in late childhood and adolescence (Fredrick et al., 2019). Low positive affect and reluctance to share emotional experiences with peers were related to loneliness in middle childhood (Jacob et al., 2014). Additionally, peer attachment was linked with positive peer behaviors during middle childhood (Seibert & Kerns, 2009). These findings suggest that positive affect with peers and peer competence are likely bidirectionally correlated in middle childhood.
Together, Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano’s (2021) framework supports the longitudinal examination of the pathways from temperamental shyness through peer competence to loneliness in middle childhood. In contrast, the significance of positive emotion in such associations remains relatively unexplored, despite its potential to alleviate adverse effects in two distinct ways. First, parental socialization of positive emotion may serve as an essential buffer against the adverse effects of temperamental shyness, which likely increases children’s positive affect expressions with peers and adds to children’s peer competence. Second, positive emotion with peers and peer competence may mutually enhance one another. Thus, when families encourage the expression of positive emotion, a cycle of improvement can be initiated, enriching both peer competence and positive interactions among peers, eventually mitigating feelings of loneliness. As such, family positive expressiveness may serve as a moderator in the sequential links from temperamental shyness, positive affect with peers, peer competence, to loneliness, as well as from temperamental shyness, peer competence, positive affect with peers, to loneliness (since peer competence and positive affect with peers may be bidirectionally correlated, their position in this path can be interchangeable). See Fig. 1a for the conceptual model of this study.

The Current Study

Guided by the conceptual frameworks of social withdrawal (Rubin & Chronis-Tuscano, 2021) and emotion socialization (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2017), this study examined longitudinal associations among temperamental shyness, peer competence, and loneliness in middle childhood, with a particular focus on the role of positive emotion. This study utilized a large, longitudinal sample spanning over six years from early to middle childhood to examine critical developmental periods of social skills.
Figure 1a presents the conceptual model of the current study. It was hypothesized that children high in temperamental shyness would show lower peer competence and lower positive affect with peers in Grade 3. Between Grades 3 and 5, peer competence and positive affect with peers would be positively bidirectionally correlated, negatively predicting child-perceived loneliness levels in Grade 5. Finally, high family positive expressiveness would buffer the adverse effects of temperamental shyness on peer competence and positive affect with peers in Grade 3. Eventually, family positive expressiveness would show moderated mediation effects in the sequential associations from temperamental shyness, peer competence, positive affect with peers, to loneliness in Grade 5, as well as from temperamental shyness, positive affect with peers, peer competence, to loneliness in Grade 5.

Method

Participants

This research used data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD), with a sample size of 1,364 families. These participants included infants (50.4% male) born in 1991 from ten different states across the U.S. Their mothers were at least 18 years old, in good health, English-speaking, not considering adoption for their child, living within an hour of the research sites, and had no plans to move within the next three years (NICHD ECCRN, 2002). On average, the mothers were 28.11 years old (SD = 5.6). Most (78.9%) identified as White, 11.2% as Black, 5.6% as Hispanic, and 4.3% as other. Children were 76.4% White, 12.7% Black, 6.1% Hispanic, and 4.8% other. During the study enrollment period, 85.2% of mothers lived with their partners. The average maternal education was 14.4 years (SD = 2.5). The average family income-to-needs ratio at one month of infant age was 3.7 (SD = 2.8).

Procedures

When children were one month old, parents provided consent and parental permission for data collection. Mothers provided demographic data. Mothers reported children’s temperament when children were 4.5 years old (Mage = 4.64, SD = 0.10; 50.1% male). When children were in Grades 3 (G3; 8–9 years old; Mage = 8.67, SD = 0.32; 49.6% male) and 5 (G5; 10–11 years old; Mage = 11.04, SD = 0.33; 50.0% male), mothers rated children’s peer competence. Independent research assistants observed the children during lunchtime at G3 and G5. The mother and an alternative caregiver (84.8% the father) independently rated family expressiveness at G3. Finally, children self-rated their loneliness levels in G5. Each involved university’s Institutional Review Board provided ethical approval for the NICHD SECCYD (University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Harvard University and Wellesley College, University of California, Irvin, University of Kansas, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Temple University, University of Pittsburgh, University of Virginia, University of Washington, Seattle, and University of Wisconsin, Madison).

Measures

Temperamental shyness was reported by mothers using the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart et al., 1994) at 4.5 years old. Items from the shyness subscale (10 items) were rated on a 7-point scale (1 = extremely untrue, 7 = extremely true) to reflect the child’s reactions during the past six months. A sample item is “child gets embarrassed when strangers pay a lot of attention to him or her.” Cronbach’s α was 0.87. Items were averaged with a possible range of 1–7 and higher scores indicated higher temperamental shyness.
Peer competence was measured by the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; Gresham & Elliott, 1990) at G3 and G5. Mothers completed 38 items documenting the mother’s perceptions of her child’s cooperation, assertion, responsibility, and self-control (0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = very often). The 10-item peer competence scale was created for the NICHD SECCYD (NICHD ECCRN, 2002). It assesses issues including joining group activities without being told, responding appropriately when hit or pushed by other children, making friends easily, controlling temper when arguing with other children, being liked by others, being self-confident in social situations, responding appropriately to teasing, and acknowledging compliments or praise from friends. This scale has been used in past studies (e.g., NICHD ECCRN, 2008; Roisman et al., 2009; Sutter et al., 2020). Cronbach’s α for the subscale at G3 and G5 was 0.79 and 0.77, respectively. Higher scores indicated higher levels of peer competence (possible range 0–20).
Children’s positive affect with peers was assessed at G3 and G5 using an unstructured, naturalistic observation during the child’s school lunch period, where children could choose their seats and initiate peer interactions spontaneously (NICHD ECCRN, 2008). Trained observers watched the child for at least 10 min and focused on the child’s mood, affect, self-control, and social behaviors. Only the positive affect scale was used in the current study. Child positive affect was first rated on a 7-point scale (1 = uncharacteristic, 7 = extremely characteristic) and then recoded into a 4-point scale by SECCYD researchers (i.e., 1–3 = 1, 4 = 2, 5 = 3, 6–7 = 4; range 1–4). Inter-rater reliability between the two observers was determined by a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.87.
Family positive expressiveness was measured at G3 through the Family Emotional Expressiveness Questionnaire (Halberstadt, 1986). The questionnaire assessed perceptions of how much emotion is expressed within the child’s home with two subscales: negative expression and positive expression. The current study only used the positive expression subscale. Examples of positive expression items include “How often does someone in your family praise someone in the family for good work?” and “How often does your family hug or snuggle.” Two caregivers, the mother and an alternative caregiver (84.8% the father, 10.9% the mother’s partner, and 4.3% a grandparent or another relative), rated 12 items on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = rarely, 5 = very often; possible range 12–60). Responses from two reporters were averaged to create a positive family emotional expressiveness score (r =.16, p <.001), where higher scores indicated more expressiveness. The reliability of mothers’ positive family emotional expressiveness was 0.89, while the reliability for the alternative caregiver was 0.88.
Children’s loneliness was measured by the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire (Asher et al., 1984), which was completed by the child at G5. The questionnaire included 25 items (16 principal items and nine filler items), rated on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all true, 5 = always true). Sample items include “Are you lonely?” and “Are you good at working with other kids?”. Higher scores indicated higher levels of loneliness and social dissatisfaction (possible range 16–80). Cronbach’s alpha was 0.91.
Covariates included child sex and family income-to-needs ratio (calculated based on the family income, the size of the family, and the local poverty line), reported by mothers at 1-month postpartum.

Analytic Approach

Preliminary analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 28.0), including descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations, to screen for data distribution, outliers, and multivariate normality. Formal analyses were carried out using a path model via the lavaan package in R (Fig. 1b). The model fit was evaluated by root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA; < 0.05), comparative fit index (CFI; > 0.95), and standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR; < 0.05). Mediation effects and indexes of moderated mediation were calculated using the Monte Carlo method with 20,000 repetitions (Selig & Preacher, 2008).
Little’s MCAR test (Little, 1988) indicated that the data were not Missing Completely At Random, with χ2(339) = 449.86, p <.001. We tested correlations of missingness with all current study variables. Instances of missing data in child shyness, family positive expressiveness, peer competence, and loneliness were associated with child being a boy, t > 2.1, p <.03, and a lower family income-to-needs ratio, t > 2.6, p <.01. Missingness in child positive affect with peers at both time points was associated with a lower family income-to-needs ratio, t > 2.8, p <.01. Higher child shyness additionally predicted missingness in family positive expressiveness, t(129) = 2.1, p =.04. Given that covariates can explain the missingness of key study variables, the missing information could potentially be recovered with these variables controlled in the model. Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) estimation was employed to reduce bias when estimating missing information (Enders & Bandalos, 2001).

Results

Descriptive statistics of variables are presented in Table 1. On a bivariate level, temperamental shyness was related to lower peer competence in G3 and G5. Family positive expressiveness was related to higher competence in G3 and G5. Peer competence and positive affect with peers were bidirectionally positively correlated between G3 and G5. Loneliness was related to lower peer competence and lower positive affect with peers in G5.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics and Bivariate Correlation of Study Variables
 
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1. Child Sex
         
2. Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
0.01
        
3. Temperamental shyness 4.5Y
0.07*
0.02
       
4. Family positive expressiveness G3
0.00
0.12**
− 0.11**
      
5. Peer competence G3
0.06*
0.14**
− 0.17**
0.38**
     
6. Peer competence G5
0.10**
0.16**
− 0.16**
0.33**
0.68**
    
7. Positive affect with peers G3
− 0.07*
0.02
− 0.03
0.00
0.12**
0.10**
   
8. Positive affect with peers G5
− 0.06
0.03
− 0.09*
0.07*
0.14**
0.13**
0.14**
  
9. Loneliness G5
− 0.07*
− 0.13**
− 0.01
− 0.05
− 0.19**
− 0.24**
− 0.02
− 0.18**
 
N
1364
1273
1054
1031
1027
1020
886
941
1024
Percent of missingness
0.00%
6.67%
22.73%
24.41%
24.71%
25.22%
35.04%
31.01%
24.93%
Min
1
0.08
1.00
21.82
2
5
1
1
16.00
Max
2
25.08
6.60
60.00
20
20
4
4
75.00
M
--
2.86
3.52
49.68
15.86
15.94
2.84
3.08
25.72
SD
--
2.61
1.10
5.74
2.97
2.90
0.85
0.91
9.02
Skewness
0.07
2.53
0.13
-0.78
-0.84
-0.57
-0.16
-0.73
1.46
Kurtosis
-2.00
10.27
-0.31
1.43
0.91
-0.24
-0.78
-0.31
2.93
Note. Child sex: 1 = male, 2 = female. 1 M = 1 month. 4.5Y = 4.5 years old. G3 = Grade 3. G5 = Grade 5
* p <.05, ** p <.01
The path model showed a good fit to the data, χ2(8) = 27.44, p =.001; CFI = 1.00, SRMR = 0.03, RMSEA = 0.04 (CI90% [0.03, 0.06]) (Table 2). The analytic sample size has a power level of 90.3% for hypothesis testing, based on the alpha level (0.05), degrees of freedom (8), sample size (1,364), and RMSEA (0.05 for preferred models, 0.04 for the current model) (MacCallum et al., 1996). Higher child temperamental shyness was related to lower peer competence in G3 (B = -2.72, SE = 0.79, t = -3.45, p =.001). An interaction between child temperamental shyness and family positive expressiveness emerged in predicting peer competence in G3 (B = 0.05, SE = 0.02, t = 3.01, p =.003). Under high levels of family positive expressiveness (one SD above the mean), child temperamental shyness was not linked to peer competence in G3 (B = -0.12, SE = 0.12, t = -1.04, p =.30), whereas this association was negative when family positive expressiveness was low (one SD below the mean; B = -0.66, SE = 0.13, t = -5.22, p <.001).
Table 2
Path model results
 
B
SE
t
90% C.I.
Loneliness G5 (R2 = 0.09)
     
Child Sex
-0.92
0.54
-1.69
-1.98
0.15
Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
-0.33
0.11
-2.99**
-0.55
-0.11
Positive affect with peers G5
-1.53
0.32
-4.85***
-2.14
-0.91
Peer competence G5
-0.68
0.10
-6.66***
-0.89
-0.48
Family positive expressiveness G3
0.06
0.05
1.12
-0.04
0.16
Temperamental shyness 4.5Y
-0.41
0.26
-1.59
-0.93
0.10
Peer competence G5 (R2 = 0.48)
     
Child Sex
0.40
0.13
3.03**
0.14
0.66
Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
0.06
0.03
2.08*
0.003
0.11
Peer competence G3
0.62
0.03
24.58***
0.57
0.67
Positive affect with peers G3
0.12
0.09
1.40
-0.05
0.30
Family positive expressiveness G3
0.03
0.01
2.63**
0.01
0.06
Temperamental shyness 4.5Y
-0.16
0.06
-2.49*
-0.29
-0.03
Positive affect with peers G5 (R2 = 0.04)
     
Child Sex
-0.10
0.06
-1.64
-0.21
0.02
Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
0.01
0.01
0.45
-0.02
0.03
Peer competence G3
0.03
0.01
2.97**
0.01
0.06
Positive affect with peers G3
0.13
0.04
3.56***
0.06
0.21
Family positive expressiveness G3
0.00
0.01
0.41
-0.01
0.01
Temperamental shyness 4.5Y
-0.05
0.03
-1.89
-0.11
0.00
Peer competence G3 (R2 = 0.17)
     
Child Sex
0.37
0.17
2.24*
0.05
0.70
Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
0.11
0.03
3.19**
0.04
0.18
Family positive expressiveness G3
0.02
0.06
0.30
-0.09
0.13
Temperamental shyness 4.5Y
-2.72
0.79
-3.45***
-4.26
-1.17
Shyness X Family positivity
0.05
0.02
3.01**
0.02
0.08
Positive affect with peers G3 (R2 = 0.01)
     
Child Sex
-0.13
0.06
-2.27*
-0.24
-0.02
Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
0.01
0.01
0.83
-0.01
0.03
Family positive expressiveness G3
-0.01
0.02
-0.45
-0.05
0.03
Temperamental shyness 4.5Y
-0.16
0.27
-0.59
-0.69
0.37
Shyness X Family positivity
0.00
0.01
0.50
-0.01
0.01
Family positive expressiveness G3 (R2 = 0.01)
    
Child Sex
-0.26
0.33
-0.79
-0.92
0.39
Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
0.22
0.07
3.25***
0.09
0.36
Temperamental shyness 54 M (R2 = 0.00)
     
Child Sex
0.02
0.02
0.72
-0.03
0.07
Income-to-needs ratio 1 M
-0.02
0.01
-3.88***
-0.03
-0.01
Note. Child sex: 1 = male, 2 = female. 1 M = 1 month. 4.5Y = 4.5 years old. G3 = Grade 3. G5 = Grade 5
* p <.05, ** p <.01, *** p <.001
Child peer competence in G3 predicted higher positive affect with peers in G5 (B = 0.03, SE = 0.01, t = 2.97, p =.003), yet child positive affect with peers in G3 did not predict peer competence in G5. Instead, lower child temperamental shyness (B = -0.16, SE = 0.06, t = -2.49, p =.01) and higher family positive expressiveness (B = 0.03, SE = 0.01, t = 2.63, p =.009) were related to higher peer competence in G5. Finally, higher peer competence (B = -0.68, SE = 0.10, t = -6.66, p <.001) and higher positive affect with peers in G5 (B = -1.53, SE = 0.32, t = -4.85, p <.001) predicted lower loneliness in G5.
As family positive expressiveness moderated the path between child temperamental shyness and child peer competence in G3, it likely moderated the sequential mediation pathway from child temperamental shyness through child peer competence in G3 and positive affect with peers in G5 to loneliness in G5. The index of moderated mediation was thus calculated and was significant (B = -0.002, SE = 0.001, 95% CI = [-0.005, -0.0004]). Further analyses showed that this mediation was significant only under low levels (B = 0.033, SE = 0.015, 95% CI = [0.009, 0.066]) but not high levels of family positive expressiveness (B = 0.006, SE = 0.006, 95% CI = [-0.005, 0.022]). Together, findings supported the hypothesis that higher family positive expressiveness buffered the sequential associations from higher temperamental shyness, through lower peer competence and lower positive affect with peers, to higher loneliness in G5.

Supplemental Analyses

In the supplemental analyses of the current study, we explored whether child sex moderated the associations in this study with a multiple-group model added to the study model (Table S1). Results only identified one path with significant sex differences: the effect of shyness on peer competence was more negative for boys than for girls. Second, we explored whether child loneliness predicted peer competence and positive affect with peers at G5 using an alternative model (Table S2, Figure S1). Results support such prepositions, although the alternative model was more complicated without a better fit; thus, based on the model parsimony rule, the main manuscript’s model was retained. Finally, we separately tested the informants of positive family emotional expressiveness into two models (Table S3). Only maternal reports of positive family emotional expressiveness showed a moderation effect similar to the main study. The finding is not surprising, as mothers generally assume the main responsibility for emotional socialization (Morris et al., 2017), and maternal reports may be more reflective of their own socialization behaviors. However, we retained both reporters’ data in the main study because we believed it would better indicate the socialization practice in the whole family. Please refer to the supplemental materials for details.

Discussion

Guided by the conceptual frameworks of social withdrawal (Rubin & Chronis-Tuscano, 2021) and emotion socialization (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2017), this study examined longitudinal associations among temperamental shyness, peer competence, and loneliness in middle childhood, with a particular focus on the role of positive emotion socialization and expression. The results of this study had specific implications for early intervention of high temperamental shyness in childhood.
This study contributed to the current literature by adding two important observations. First, this study found sequential associations among temperamental shyness in early childhood, peer competence in G3, positive affect with peers in G5, and child-perceived loneliness levels in middle childhood. Past research has largely supported robust associations among temperamental shyness, peer competence, and loneliness (e.g., Buck & Dix, 2012; Penela et al., 2015; Qualter et al., 2013; Schinka et al., 2013). However, this study found that peer competence in G3 predicted positive affect with peers in G5, but not in the reverse direction. On the contrary, most past research considered peer competence as an adaptive outcome rather than a predictor (e.g., Jacob et al., 2014; Penela et al., 2015; Trentacosta & Fine, 2010). Here, we argue that peer competence is an adaptive capacity that enhances children’s social behaviors with peers, such as an increase in the expression of positive emotion during peer interactions. This study also found that both peer competence and positive affect with peers in G5 were associated with lower loneliness levels simultaneously. It is not surprising to find that socially competent children are likely more able to develop healthy peer relationships and thrive emotionally during middle childhood, thus being shielded from feelings of loneliness (Qualter et al., 2013; Schinka et al., 2013). In addition, expressing and sharing positive emotion with peers may be crucial for school-aged children to buffer against feelings of loneliness (Jacob et al., 2014).
Second, this study found that family positive expressiveness mitigated the sequential links among temperamental shyness, peer competence, positive affect with peers, and loneliness in middle childhood. Findings align with the large body of work on the positive effects of emotion socialization (Eisenberg et al., 2003; Morris et al., 2017) and a small body of research on positive emotion socialization among socially anxious children (Fredrick et al., 2019; Nyquist et al., 2019). The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998) suggests that positive emotion widens one’s mindset and serves as a resource when facing threats. Positive emotion expressions in the family likely broaden children’s peer competence because they add to children’s resources when facing tricky social situations. By fostering a positive emotional climate within the family, parents may assist children by providing them with the necessary tools to navigate social challenges. Positive emotion also increases the parent-child bond so children can use parents as secure bases when facing challenges (Morris et al., 2017). As children increase peer interactions in middle childhood (Valiente et al., 2020), they may transfer the skills learned in the family to a peer context and gain competence in peer relationships (Eisenberg et al., 2003; Parke et al., 1992).
In the current study, neither temperamental shyness nor family positive expression showed a direct link with positive affect with peers at school lunch. Similarly, little evidence has shown that temperamental shyness reduces children’s social competence with familiar peers (Rubin & Chronis-Tuscano, 2021), and children high in shyness can also show adaptive social behaviors and develop meaningful friendships (Rubin et al., 2006). Instead, the interaction between shyness and family positive expression was indirectly linked to positive affect with peers through peer competence. There are two implications of this finding. First, although the socialization of positive emotion may not directly influence how much positive affect children show when they interact with peers, a positive emotional atmosphere in the family likely provides a safe and supportive experience in the family and adds to children’s psychological resources. In these environments, children are more likely to show adaptive social behaviors in peer settings, of which one indicator can be expressing more positive emotion (Cornell & Frick, 2007; Eisenberg et al., 2003; Fredrick et al., 2019). Second, temperamental shyness and the inclination to show positive affect are likely two separate dimensions, and children high in shyness may not uniformly show little positive emotion. Past research also highlighted the examination of positivity within the context of shyness and revealed that children who are shy or socially inhibited can show positive affect (Laptook et al., 2008; Susa-Erdogan et al., 2022). In fact, shy school-age children who showed positive affect had similar observed and reported peer competence levels with non-shy children, better than other shy children (Poole & Schmidt, 2019). Similarly, researchers identified a group of shy preschoolers who exhibited positive affect (e.g., smiles) during social interactions as having lower social anxiety than shy children who showed negative affect (Colonnesi et al., 2017). These results, combined with our current findings, underscore the heterogeneity among children high in temperamental shyness and possibly suggest that interventions could focus on fostering positive emotion in these children.

Theoretical Integration

Together, the findings of this study support the conceptual framework of social withdrawal (Rubin & Chronis-Tuscano, 2021) by supplementing additional evidence of the critical role of socializing positive emotion in the family (Eisenberg et al., 1998; Morris et al., 2017). Findings add to a small body of research suggesting the examination of positive emotion among children high in shyness (e.g., Colonnesi et al., 2014; Poole & Schmidt, 2019; Schmidt & Poole, 2019; Susa-Erdogan et al., 2022) and the importance of positive emotion socialization among shy children and adolescents (Fredrick et al., 2019; Nyquist et al., 2019). Findings underscore the importance of considering emotional processes, especially strategies such as expressing positive emotion, in examining peer relationships and interactions (Fredrick et al., 2019; Hastings et al., 2014). Findings highlight middle childhood as a critical period during which familial emotion socialization adds to children’s social competence in broader contexts such as school settings, and eventually contributes to children’s emotional well-being (Eisenberg et al., 2003; Hernández et al., 2016). In these ways, this study has significant implications for theorizing and intervening with the negative consequences of high childhood shyness.

Strengths, Limitations, and Clinical Implications

Strengths of the current study include, first, a large, longitudinal sample, which spanned over six years and enabled the examination of social behaviors over critical developmental milestones. Second, this study utilized multi-method, multi-informant assessments, with both parental reports and independent, naturalistic observations of peer interactions, which increased the validity of the study findings. Children’s self-report of loneliness was also included in the study, which not only considered children’s perspectives but also helped avoid reporter biases or shared method variance.
This study is not without its limitations. First, the study sample was based in the U.S., predominantly White, urban, and middle-to-upper-middle class, meaning the findings may not generalize to individuals of other regions, nations, races/ethnicities, or social classes. For example, shyness may not always be associated with adverse peer outcomes in certain cultures and areas (Chen & Liu, 2021). Also, this study used a community sample, and results need to be replicated with high-risk samples (i.e., children experiencing clinical concerns due to high shyness).
Second, this study only used observations during school lunch to indicate positive affect in front of peers without considering various positive-valence emotions (e.g., smiles, laughter, excitement), which requires future exploration. Also, as children age, their expression of positive affect may also change. For example, they may be less expressive of high-intensity positive affect, but also become more differentiated in their positive expressions (i.e., joy, excitement, gratitude, compliment). This is a direction for future studies as the current study may not capture developmental changes in positive affect with peers from early to middle childhood. Additionally, although in this study we considered positive expression as an adaptive peer behavior, it is not always the case, as dysregulated and context-inappropriate positive affect may undermine peer relationships (Degnan et al., 2011; Gilbert, 2012). As such, the data should be interpreted with sensitivity to the emotional context. Further, due to a lack of available data, we did not account for the length of observations. Although positive affect was rated from uncharacteristic to extremely characteristic, capturing the average level rather than the total amount of positive affect observed, the length of observations may have introduced variability in children’s opportunities to express positive affect. This variability should be controlled for in future studies. Meanwhile, the context of peer interactions also matters when interpreting the data. We used observational data at school lunch, which can provide opportunities to understand naturalistic, spontaneous peer behaviors. However, questions remain about whether children had access to a large or small peer group or were engaged in high-intensity positive interactions (such as playing together) rather than just sitting and enjoying lunch and conversations. Like most naturalistic observational studies on emotion, context constitutes an unavoidable issue, generating variabilities across participants, as affective expressions can be context-specific. Yet, naturalistic observations also provide valuable data for real-life behaviors. Further studies need to balance laboratory-induced, structured and naturalistic, unstructured observations to understand the diverse affective expressions during peer interactions.
Third, the reasons for childhood loneliness may need further exploration. As Rubin and Chronis-Tuscano (2021) discussed, it is essential to differentiate the experiences of loneliness due to shyness or unsociability, which is a direction of future research. Moreover, parents may also socialize positive emotion differently according to children’s shyness levels (e.g., Nyquist et al., 2019), which needs to be considered by future studies. In addition, emerging evidence shows that peers and teachers play important roles in emotion socialization during middle childhood (Valiente et al., 2020), which also needs to be examined in future research. Finally, future research needs to consider peer experiences, such as peer rejection and exclusion, in shaping peer competence, positive affect with peers, and childhood loneliness.
In sum, this study revealed essential processes underlying the development of social competence and loneliness levels in middle childhood. The multifaceted associations among temperamental shyness, peer competence, loneliness, and positive emotion underscore the complex nature of children’s socio-emotional development during middle childhood. Recognizing the unique needs and challenges faced by children high in temperamental shyness is essential for fostering positive peer experiences and promoting emotional well-being. By fostering positive emotional experiences within the family, parents can empower shy children to navigate social challenges, cultivate resilience, and develop a sense of competence during this critical stage of development. Intervention efforts towards high shyness among children may also focus on promoting positive emotion. In particular, family-based interventions can help parents foster a positive emotional atmosphere in the family, which may, in turn, promote shy children’s peer competence and social interactions and ultimately reduce feelings of loneliness in childhood.

Acknowledgements

Data collection of this project was supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (5 U10 HD027040). NICHD had no role in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

IRB approvals were obtained for the study procedures (Florida State University, STUDY00000739, “Maternal depression and children’s emotional development”). This study was not preregistered. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Parents provided consent and parental permission prior to data collection, when children were one month old.

Research Involving Human Participants

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://​creativecommons.​org/​licenses/​by-nc-nd/​4.​0/​.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Onze productaanbevelingen

BSL Psychologie Totaal

Met BSL Psychologie Totaal blijf je als professional steeds op de hoogte van de nieuwste ontwikkelingen binnen jouw vak. Met het online abonnement heb je toegang tot een groot aantal boeken, protocollen, vaktijdschriften en e-learnings op het gebied van psychologie en psychiatrie. Zo kun je op je gemak en wanneer het jou het beste uitkomt verdiepen in jouw vakgebied.

BSL Academy Accare GGZ collective

Bijlagen

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Literatuur
go back to reference Chen, X., & Liu, M. (2021). Culture, social withdrawal, and development. In R. J. Coplan, J. C. Bowker, & L. J. Nelson (Eds.), The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone (2nd ed., pp. 75–88). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119576457.ch6 Chen, X., & Liu, M. (2021). Culture, social withdrawal, and development. In R. J. Coplan, J. C. Bowker, & L. J. Nelson (Eds.), The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone (2nd ed., pp. 75–88). Wiley-Blackwell. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​9781119576457.​ch6
go back to reference Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Morris, A. S., Fabes, R. A., Cumberland, A., Reiser, M., Gershoff, E. T., Shepard, S. A., & Losoya, S. (2003). Longitudinal relations among parental emotional expressivity, children’s regulation, and quality of socioemotional functioning. Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.3CrossRefPubMed Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Morris, A. S., Fabes, R. A., Cumberland, A., Reiser, M., Gershoff, E. T., Shepard, S. A., & Losoya, S. (2003). Longitudinal relations among parental emotional expressivity, children’s regulation, and quality of socioemotional functioning. Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 3–19. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1037/​0012-1649.​39.​1.​3CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Parke, R. D., Cassidy, J., Burks, V. M., Carson, J. L., & Boyum, L. (1992). Familial contribution to peer competence among young children: The role of interactive and affective processes. In R. D. Parke, & G. Ladd (Eds.), Family-peer relationships (pp. 107–134). Routledge. Parke, R. D., Cassidy, J., Burks, V. M., Carson, J. L., & Boyum, L. (1992). Familial contribution to peer competence among young children: The role of interactive and affective processes. In R. D. Parke, & G. Ladd (Eds.), Family-peer relationships (pp. 107–134). Routledge.
go back to reference Roisman, G. I., Booth-LaForce, C., Cauffman, E., Spieker, S., & NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2009). The developmental significance of adolescent romantic relationships: Parent and peer predictors of engagement and quality at age 15. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1294–1303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9378-4CrossRefPubMed Roisman, G. I., Booth-LaForce, C., Cauffman, E., Spieker, S., & NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2009). The developmental significance of adolescent romantic relationships: Parent and peer predictors of engagement and quality at age 15. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1294–1303. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10964-008-9378-4CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Hershey, K. L. (1994). Temperament and social behavior in childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40(1), 21–39. Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Hershey, K. L. (1994). Temperament and social behavior in childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40(1), 21–39.
go back to reference Selig, J. P., & Preacher, K. J. (2008, June). Monte Carlo method for assessing mediation: An interactive tool for creating confidence intervals for indirect effects [Computer software]. Selig, J. P., & Preacher, K. J. (2008, June). Monte Carlo method for assessing mediation: An interactive tool for creating confidence intervals for indirect effects [Computer software].
Metagegevens
Titel
Temperamental Shyness, Peer Competence, and Loneliness in Middle Childhood: The Role of Positive Emotion
Auteurs
Qiong Wu
Karina Jalapa
Chorong Lee
Xinyun Kaikai Zhang
Mickey Langlais
Publicatiedatum
17-09-2024
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology / Uitgave 12/2024
Print ISSN: 2730-7166
Elektronisch ISSN: 2730-7174
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-024-01246-1