Top

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Gepubliceerd in:

25-07-2019 | Original Paper

Self-categorization and Autism: Exploring the Relationship Between Autistic Traits and Ingroup Favouritism in the Minimal Group Paradigm

Auteurs: Kristen Bertschy, Daniel P. Skorich, S. Alexander Haslam

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | Uitgave 9/2020

Abstract

The Integrated self-categorization model of autism (ISCA) argues that a self-categorization dysfunction could be the link between some of the disparate features of ASD. To the extent that this is true, any social psychological phenomena arising from self-categorization should be impaired in autistic people. Based on this premise, we investigated whether ingroup favouritism within the minimal group paradigm is reduced to the extent that individuals possess autistic traits. Results indicated that participants with a high proportion of autistic traits showed less ingroup favouritism, and that this was due to a decreased tendency for self-categorization. By providing evidence of the disruption of self-categorization in ASD, these findings lend support to ISCA and raise important issues for existing accounts of the disorder.

vorige artikel Improving the Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Fragile X Syndrome by Adapting the Social Communication Questionnaire and the Social Responsiveness Scale-2

volgende artikel Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers Revised (MCHAT-R/F) in an Urban Metropolitan Sample of Young Children in Turkey

MIP occurs when a participant allocates the highest number of points to the ingroup member. MD occurs when the participant allocates points in such a way as to maximise the difference in points in favour of the ingroup. MJP occurs when a participant allocates the highest total number of points across both recipients. F occurs when ingroup and outgroup recipients are allocated an equal number of points. Where MIP and MD are pitted against each other, MIP is indicative of absolute ingroup favouritism and MD of relative ingroup favouritism.

Allen, V. L., & Wilder, D. A. (1975). Categorization, belief similarity, and intergroup discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 971–977. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.32.6.971.CrossRef

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5TM (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.CrossRef

Ames, D. R. (2004). Inside the mind reader’s tool kit: Projection and stereotyping in mental state inference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 340–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.340.CrossRefPubMed

Ashwin, C., Hietanen, J. K., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2015). Atypical integration of social cues for orienting to gaze direction in adults with autism. Molecular Autism, 6(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/2040-2392-6-5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). The empathizing system: a revision of the 1994 model of the mindreading system. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development (pp. 468–492). New York: Guilford Publications Inc.

Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “Theory of Mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8.CrossRefPubMed

Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005653411471.CrossRefPubMed

Billig, M., & Tajfel, H. (1973). Social categorization and similarity in intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 27–52. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420030103.CrossRef

Bourhis, R. Y., Sachdev, I., & Gagnon, A. (1994). Intergroup research with the Tajfel matrices: Methodological notes. In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario symposium (7th ed., pp. 209–232). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307.CrossRef

Brewer, M. B., & Kramer, R. M. (1986). Choice behavior in social dilemmas: Effects of social identity, group size, and decision framing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 543–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.543.CrossRef

Brewer, M. B., & Silver, M. (1978). Ingroup bias as a function of task characteristics. European Journal of Social Psychology, 8, 393–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420080312.CrossRef

Brunsdon, V. E. A., & Happé, F. (2014). Exploring the “fractionation” of autism at the cognitve level. Autism, 18, 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313499456.CrossRefPubMed

Cooper, D. K., Smith, L., & Russell, A. (2017). Social identity, self-esteem, and mental health in autism. European Journal of Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2297.CrossRef

Cruwys, T., Haslam, S. A., Dingle, G. A., Haslam, C., & Jetten, J. (2014). Depression and social identity: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 215–238.CrossRef

Doise, W., Csepeli, G., Dann, H. D., Gouge, C., Larsen, K., & Ostell, A. (1972). An experimental investigation into the formation of intergroup representations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 202–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420020208.CrossRef

Frith, U. (1989). Autism: Explaining the enigma. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Frith, U., & Happé, F. (1994). Autism: Beyond “Theory of Mind”. Cognition, 50, 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)90024-8.CrossRefPubMed

Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708–724. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.78.4.708.CrossRefPubMed

Georgiades, S., Szatmari, P., Boyle, M., Hanna, S., Duku, E., Zwaigenbaum, L., et al. (2013). Investigating phenotypic heterogeneity in children with austism spectrum disorder: A factor mixture modeling approach. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 206–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02588.x.CrossRefPubMed

Ghaziuddin, M., Ghaziuddin, N., & Greden, J. (2002). Depression in persons with autism: Implications for research and clinical care. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 299–306. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016330802348.CrossRefPubMed

Hamilton, D. L., & Gifford, R. K. (1976). Illusory correlation in interpersonal perception: A cognitive basis of stereotypic judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 392–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(76)80006-6.CrossRef

Happé, F. (1994). Wechsler IQ profile and Theory of Mind in autism: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1461–1471. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01287.x.CrossRefPubMed

Happé, F. (1997). Central coherence and Theory of Mind in autism: Reading homographs in context. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1997.tb00721.x.CrossRef

Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2006). The weak coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0.CrossRefPubMed

Happé, F., & Ronald, A. (2008). The “fractionable autism triad”: A review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research. Neuropsychology Review, 18, 287–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8.CrossRefPubMed

Happé, F., Ronald, A., & Plomin, R. (2006). Time to give up on a single explanation for autism. Nature, 9, 1218–1220. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1770.CrossRef

Haslam, S. A. (1997). Stereotyping and social influence: Foundations of stereotype consensus. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life (pp. 119–143). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Haslam, C., Cruwys, T., Haslam, S. A., Dingle, G., & Chang, M. X. (2016). Groups4Health: Evidence that a social-identity intervention that builds and strengthens social group membership improves mental health. Journal of Affective Disorders, 194, 188–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.01.010.CrossRefPubMed

Haslam, C., Jetten, J., Cruwys, T., Dingle, G., & Haslam, S. A. (2018). The new psychology of health: Unlocking the social cure. Abingdon: Routledge.CrossRef

Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Postmes, T., & Haslam, C. (2009). Social identity, health and well-being: An emerging agenda for applied psychology. Applied Psychology, 58, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00379.x.CrossRef

Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Reynolds, K. J., & Turner, J. C. (1999). Social identity salience and the emergence of stereotype consensus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 809–818. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025007004.CrossRef

Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & McGarty, C. (1995). Social categorization and group homogeneity: Changes in the perceived applicability of stereotype content as a function of comparative context and trait favourableness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1995.tb01054.x.CrossRefPubMed

Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1992). Context-dependent variation in social stereotyping II: The relationship between frame of reference, self-categorization and accentuation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 251–277. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420220305.CrossRef

Haslam, S. A., Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., McGarty, G., & Hayes, B. K. (1992). Context dependent variation in social stereotyping I: The effects of intergroup relations as mediated by social change and frame of reference. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420220104.CrossRef

Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Hobson, R. P., Ouston, J., & Lee, A. (1988). What’s in a face? The case of autism. British Journal of Psychology, 79, 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1988.tb02745.x.CrossRefPubMed

Hoekstra, R. A., Vinkhuyzen, A. A. E., Wheelwright, S., Bartels, M., Boomsma, D. I., Baron-Cohen, S., … van der Sluis, S. (2011). The construction and validation of an abridged version of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ-Short). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 589–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1073-0.

Hornsey, M. J. (2008). Social identity theory and self-categorization theory: A historical review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 204–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00066.x.CrossRef

Jarrold, C., Butler, D. W., Cottington, E. M., & Jimenez, F. (2000). Linking Theory of Mind and central coherence bias in autism and in the general population. Developmental Psychology, 36, 126–138. https://doi.org/10.1037//O012-1649.36.1.126.CrossRefPubMed

Jetten, J., Haslam, C., & Haslam, S. A. (2012). The social cure: Identity, health and well-being. New York: Psychology Press.CrossRef

Johnson, S. A., Filliter, J. H., & Murphy, R. R. (2009). Discrepancies between self- and parent-perceptions of autistic traits and empathy in high-functioning children and adolescents on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder, 39, 1706–1714. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0809-1.CrossRef

Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Are people with autism and Asperger Syndrome faster than normal on the embedded figures test? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 527–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01539.x.CrossRefPubMed

Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2001). A test of central coherence theory: Can adults with high-functioning autism or Asperger Syndrome integrate objects in context? Visual Cognition, 8, 67–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280042000036.CrossRef

Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., … Pascalis, O. (2005). Three-month-olds, but not newborns, prefer own-race faces. Developmental Science, 8(6), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.0434a.x.

Kim, J. A., Szatmari, P., Bryson, S. E., Streiner, D. L., & Wilson, F. J. (2000). The prevalence of anxiety and mood problems among children with autism and Asperger Syndrome. Autism, 4, 117–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361300004002002.CrossRef

Langdell, T. (1978). Recognition of faces: An approach to the study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19, 255–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1978.tb00468.x.CrossRefPubMed

Leach, C. W., van Zomeren, M., Zebel, S., Vliek, M. L. W., Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., … Spears, R. (2008). Group-level self-definition and self-investment: A hierarchical (multicomponent) model of in-group identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 144–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.144.

Mason, W., & Suri, S. (2012). Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0124-6.CrossRefPubMed

McGarty, C. (1999). Categorization in social psychology. London: Sage.

McGarty, C., Haslam, S. A., Hutchinson, K. J., & Turner, J. C. (1994). The effects of salient group memberships on persuasion. Small Group Research, 25, 267–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496494252007.CrossRef

Montalan, B., Lelard, T., Godefroy, O., & Mouras, H. (2012). Behavioral investigation of the influence of social categorization on empathy for pain: A minimal group paradigm study. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00389.CrossRef

Morgan, B., Maybery, M., & Durkin, K. (2003). Weak Central Coherence, poor joint attention, and low verbal ability: Independent deficits in early autism. Developmental Psychology, 39, 646–656. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.4.646.CrossRefPubMed

Mottron, L., Dawson, M., Soulieres, I., Hubert, B., & Burack, J. (2006). Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: An update, and eight principles of autistic perception. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(1), 27–43.CrossRefPubMed

Mullen, B., Brown, R., & Smith, C. (1992). Ingroup bias as a function of salience, relevance, and status: An integration. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 103–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420220202.CrossRef

Murray, A. L., Booth, T., Mckenzie, K., Kuenssberg, R., & O’Donnell, M. (2014). Are autistic traits measured equivalently in individuals with and without an autism spectrum disorder? An invariance analysis of the Autism Spectrum Quotient Short Form. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1851-6.CrossRefPubMed

Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford: Blackwell.

Oakes, P. J., & Turner, J. C. (1980). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour: Does minimal intergroup discrimination make social identity more positive? European Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420100307.CrossRef

Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & Haslam, S. A. (1991). Perceiving people as group members: The role of fit in the salience of social categorizations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 125–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1991.tb00930.x.CrossRef

Petersen, L. E., & Blank, H. (2003). Ingroup bias in the minimal group paradigm shown by three-person groups with high or low state self-esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.137.CrossRef

Platow, M. J., Grace, D. M., & Smithson, M. J. (2012). Examining the preconditions for psychological group membership. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611407081.CrossRef

Postmes, T., Haslam, S. A., & Jans, L. (2012). A single-item measure of social identification: Reliability, validity, and utility. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52, 597–617. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12006.CrossRefPubMed

Quattrone, G. A., & Jones, E. E. (1980). The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.1.141.CrossRef

Quinn, P. C., Yahr, J., Kuhn, A., Slater, A. M., & Pascalis, O. (2016). Representation of the gender of human faces by infants: A preference for female. Perception, 31, 1109–1121. https://doi.org/10.1068/p3331.CrossRef

Rapoport, A., & Chammah, A. M. (1965). Prisoner’s dilemma: A study in conflict and cooperation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan press.CrossRef

Russell-Smith, S. N., Maybery, M. T., Bayliss, D. M., & Sng, A. A. H. (2012). Support for a link between the local processing bias and social deficits in autism: An investigation of Embedded Figures Test performance in non-clinical individuals. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 2420–2430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1506-z.CrossRefPubMed

Schuwerk, T., Vuori, M., & Sodian, B. (2015). Implicit and explicit Theory of Mind reasoning in autism spectrum disorders: The impact of experience. Autism, 19(4), 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361314526004.CrossRefPubMed

Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1983). An inslet of ability in autistic children: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 613–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1983.tb00137.x.CrossRefPubMed

Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1993). Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the Block Design Task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1351–1364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb02095.x.CrossRefPubMed

Sherif, M. (1956). Experiments in group conflict. Scientific American, 5, 54–58. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1156-54.CrossRef

Shteynberg, G. (2010). A silent emergence of culture: The social tuning effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 683–689. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019573.CrossRefPubMed

Skorich, D. P., Gash, T. B., Stalker, K. L., Zheng, L., & Haslam, S. A. (2017). Exploring the cognitive foundations of the shared attention mechanism: Evidence for a relationship between self-categorization and shared attention across the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 1341–1353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3049-9.CrossRefPubMed

Skorich, D. P., & Mavor, K. I. (2013). Cognitive load privileges memory-based over data-driven processing, not group-level over person-level processing. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52(3), 469–488.CrossRefPubMed

Skorich, D. P., May, A. R., Talipski, L. A., Hall, M. H., Dolstra, A. J., Gash, T. B., et al. (2016). Is social categorization the missing link between weak central coherence and mental state inference abilities in autism? Preliminary evidence from a general population sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 862–881. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2623-2.CrossRefPubMed

Spears, R., & Otten, S. (2017). Discrimination: Revisiting Tajfel’s minimal group studies. In S. A. Haslam & J. R. Smith (Eds.), Social psychology: Revisiting the classic studies (pp. 164–181). London: Sage.

Sumner, W. G. (1906). Folkways: The sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, and morals. New York, NY: Ginn & Co.

Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American, 223(5), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96.CrossRef

Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420010202.CrossRef

Turner, J. C. (1982). Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations (pp. 15–40). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Turner, J. C. (1983). Some comments on… “the measurement of social orientations in the minimal group paradigm”. European Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420130403.CrossRef

Turner, J. C. (1985). Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior. Advances in Group Processes, 2, 77–122.

Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & McGarty, C. (1994). Self and collective: Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294205002.CrossRef

van Steensel, F. J. A., Bögels, S. M., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with Autistic Spectrum Disorders: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 302–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-011-0097-0.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of Theory-of-Mind development: The truth about false belief. Child Development, 72, 655–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00304.CrossRefPubMed

White, S. W., Oswald, D., Ollendick, T., & Scahill, L. (2009). Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 216–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Woodbury-Smith, M. R., Robinson, J., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). Screening adults for Asperger Syndrome using the AQ: A preliminary study of its dagnostic validity in clinical practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 331–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-3300-7.CrossRefPubMed

Yafai, A. F., Verrier, D., & Reidy, L. (2014). Social conformity and autism spectrum disorder: A child-friendly take on a classic study. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 18, 1007–1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313508023.CrossRef

Titel: Self-categorization and Autism: Exploring the Relationship Between Autistic Traits and Ingroup Favouritism in the Minimal Group Paradigm
Auteurs: Kristen Bertschy
Daniel P. Skorich
S. Alexander Haslam
Publicatiedatum: 25-07-2019
Uitgeverij: Springer US
Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders / Uitgave 9/2020
Print ISSN: 0162-3257
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-3432
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04149-z

Andere artikelen Uitgave 9/2020

Academic Needs in Middle School: Perspectives of Parents and Youth with Autism

OriginalPaper

Brief Report: A Pilot Online Pivotal Response Treatment Training Program for Parents of Toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Brief Report

Perinatal Factors Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Jamaican Children

Original Paper

Parent Perspectives Towards Genetic and Epigenetic Testing for Autism Spectrum Disorder

Open Access
Original Paper

Sex Differences in Externalizing and Internalizing Symptoms of Children with ASD

Original Paper

Early Detection, Diagnosis and Intervention Services for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the European Union (ASDEU): Family and Professional Perspectives

Original Paper