Introduction
Methods
Participants
ASD | Young versus middle versus older | COM | Young versus middle versus older | ASD versus COM | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All ages | Young | Middle | Older | Fisher’s χ2 or F
| All ages | Young | Middle | Older | Fisher’s χ2 or F
| χ2
| |
Part I
| |||||||||||
N | 172 | 52 | 72 | 48 | 172 | 60 | 47 | 65 | |||
Gender | 4.27 | 1.75 | 4.45* | ||||||||
Male | 116 | 33 | 45 | 38 | 97 | 37 | 23 | 37 | |||
Female | 56 | 19 | 27 | 10 | 75 | 23 | 24 | 28 | |||
Educationa
| 11.98 | 15.14+
| 9.77+
| ||||||||
Low | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Middle | 55 | 18 | 19 | 18 | 37 | 9 | 10 | 18 | |||
High | 115 | 34 | 51 | 30 | 134 | 51 | 37 | 46 | |||
Diagnosis | 6.71 | – | – | ||||||||
Autistic disorder | 26 | 5 | 12 | 9 | – | – | – | – | |||
Asperger | 88 | 27 | 35 | 26 | – | – | – | – | |||
PDD-NOS | 53 | 16 | 24 | 13 | – | – | – | – | |||
ASD | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | – | – | – | – | |||
ISCO | 19.29** | 49.93*** | 7.70+
| ||||||||
Class 1–3 | 62 | 11 | 37 | 14 | 80 | 19 | 36 | 25 | |||
Class 4–6 | 21 | 8 | 10 | 3 | 22 | 13 | 5 | 4 | |||
Class 7–9 | 11 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | |||
Unemployed | 74 | 30 | 20 | 24 | 57 | 23 | 1 | 33 | |||
Age (mean) | 46.7 | 29.3 | 47.9 | 63.7 | 525.52*** | 46.0 | 26.8 | 47.0 | 63.0 | 711.07*** | 0.16 |
AQ (mean) | 33.5 | 32.1 | 34.4 | 33.4 | 1.16 | 12.4 | 12.3 | 11.1 | 13.0 | 1.77 | 831.22*** |
IQ (mean) | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | |||
MMSE (mean) | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | |||
ADOS (mean) | NA | NA | NA | NA | – | – | – | – | |||
Psychotropic medication | 87 | 28 | 38 | 21 | 1.26 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 3.75 | 96.69*** |
Antidepressantsb
| 52 | 18 | 23 | 11 | 1.80 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2.61+
| 49.14*** |
Anxiolytic/sedative/hypnotics | 19 | 6 | 8 | 5 | 0.10 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.61 | 17.20*** |
Antipsychotics | 24 | 14 | 7 | 3 | 9.62** | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | 25.80*** |
Stimulants | 14 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 1.73 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | 14.59*** |
Other psychotropic medication | 11 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 4.22 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2.25 | 8.64** |
Other non-psychotropic medication | 58 | 9 | 27 | 22 | 10.23** | 55 | 6 | 15 | 34 | 27.04*** | 0.12 |
Part II
| |||||||||||
N | 138 | 46 | 47 | 45 | 170 | 60 | 46 | 64 | |||
Gender | 3.83 | 1.47 | 5.09* | ||||||||
Male | 96 | 31 | 29 | 36 | 97 | 37 | 23 | 37 | |||
Female | 42 | 15 | 18 | 9 | 73 | 23 | 23 | 27 | |||
Educationa
| 10.77 | 13.49+
| 8.50+
| ||||||||
Low | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Middle | 43 | 15 | 11 | 17 | 36 | 9 | 9 | 18 | |||
High | 94 | 31 | 35 | 28 | 134 | 51 | 37 | 46 | |||
Diagnosis | 6.82 | – | – | ||||||||
Autistic disorder | 21 | 4 | 9 | 8 | – | – | – | – | |||
Asperger | 69 | 24 | 21 | 24 | – | – | – | – | |||
PDD-NOS | 43 | 14 | 16 | 13 | – | – | – | – | |||
ASD | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | – | – | – | – | |||
ISCO | 14.98* | 48.84*** | 7.37+
| ||||||||
Class 1–3 | 48 | 10 | 25 | 13 | 79 | 19 | 35 | 25 | |||
Class 4–6 | 16 | 7 | 6 | 3 | 22 | 13 | 5 | 4 | |||
Class 7–9 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | |||
Unemployed | 66 | 27 | 15 | 24 | 57 | 23 | 1 | 33 | |||
Age (mean) | 46.5 | 28.8 | 47.2 | 63.9 | 481.64*** | 45.9 | 26.8 | 47.2 | 62.9 | 703.46*** | 0.11 |
AQ (mean) | 33.5 | 31.7 | 35.2 | 33.4 | 2.06 | 12.2 | 12.3 | 11.0 | 13.0 | 1.83 | 723.60*** |
IQ (mean) | 113.8 | 112.1 | 116.7 | 112.5 | 1.10 | 113.3 | 111.2 | 114.1 | 114.8 | 0.78 | 0.06 |
MMSE (mean) | 29.0 | 28.9 | 29.1 | 29.1 | 0.57 | 29.1 | 29.3 | 29.1 | 29.0 | 1.41 | 0.71 |
ADOS (mean) | 8.6 | 9.5 | 8.5 | 8.0 | 2.43+
| – | – | – | – | – | – |
Psychotropic medication | 67 | 22 | 27 | 18 | 2.80 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 3.82 | 85.37*** |
Antidepressantsb
| 38 | 12 | 16 | 10 | 1.65 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2.65 | 41.02*** |
Anxiolytic/sedative/hypnotics | 16 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 0.17 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.62 | 17.69*** |
Antipsychotics | 18 | 11 | 4 | 3 | 6.46* | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | 23.55*** |
Stimulants | 9 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 2.11 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | – | 11.42*** |
Other psychotropic medication | 9 | 1 | 7 | 1 | 6.73** | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2.28 | 8.54** |
Other non-psychotropic medication | 46 | 7 | 20 | 19 | 10.73** | 53 | 6 | 14 | 33 | 26.08*** | 0.16 |
Measures
Psychiatric Co-occurring Symptoms
Symptom Checklist-90 Revised (SCL-90-R)
Psychiatric Co-occurring Disorders
Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview Plus (MINI-Plus)
ADHD Rating Scale
Risk Factors
Procedure
Statistical Analyses
Psychiatric Co-occurring Symptoms
Psychiatric Co-occurring Disorders
Risk Factors
Results
Psychiatric Co-occurring Symptoms
ASD | COM | ASD versus COMa
| ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All ages | Young | Middle | Older | All ages | Young | Middle | Older |
F
|
η
p
2
| |
Psychoneuroticism | 174.9 | 183.9 | 173.1 | 167.6 | 113.3 | 111.3 | 115.9 | 113.2 | 192.96*** | .36 |
Agoraphobia | 11.4 | 12.2 | 11.3 | 10.6 | 7.4 | 7.3 | 7.2 | 7.5 | 116.89*** | .26 |
Anxiety | 18.3 | 19.8 | 18.1 | 17.0 | 11.8 | 11.4 | 12.1 | 11.8 | 111.28*** | .25 |
Depression | 33.6 | 34.8 | 33.9 | 31.8 | 20.6 | 19.8 | 21.1 | 21.0 | 151.71*** | .31 |
Somatization | 20.5 | 21.6 | 20.8 | 18.9 | 15.3 | 15.4 | 15.5 | 15.1 | 62.81*** | .16 |
Cognitive-performance deficits | 21.1 | 21.7 | 21.1 | 20.5 | 12.5 | 12.7 | 12.7 | 12.2 | 208.91*** | .38 |
Interpersonal sensitivity and mistrust | 37.2 | 38.8 | 36.1 | 37.2 | 23.4 | 22.7 | 24.3 | 23.3 | 152.44*** | .31 |
Hostility | 9.9 | 10.8 | 9.5 | 9.3 | 7.0 | 7.1 | 7.2 | 6.8 | 83.57*** | .20 |
Sleep difficulties | 6.6 | 6.9 | 6.7 | 6.2 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 4.7 | 4.8 | 43.21*** | .11 |
ASD | COM | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
NOR | PSY | NOR | PSY | |
Psychoneuroticism | 69 (40.1 %) | 3 (1.7 %) | 5 (2.9 %) | 0 (–) |
Agoraphobia | 79 (45.9 %) | 1 (0.8 %) | 2 (1.2 %) | 0 (–) |
Anxiety | 44 (25.6 %) | 1 (0.8 %) | 2 (1.2 %) | 0 (–) |
Depression | 70 (40.7 %) | 1 (0.8 %) | 5 (2.9 %) | 0 (–) |
Somatization | 29 (16.9 %) | 3 (1.7 %) | 3 (1.7 %) | 0 (–) |
Cognitive-performance deficits | 87 (50.6 %) | 5 (2.9 %) | 6 (3.5 %) | 0 (–) |
Interpersonal sensitivity and mistrust | 67 (39.0 %) | 8 (4.7 %) | 9 (5.2 %) | 0 (–) |
Hostility | 51 (29.7 %) | 3 (1.7 %) | 6 (3.5 %) | 0 (–) |
Sleep difficulties | 42 (24.4 %) | 4 (2.3 %) | 10 (5.8 %) | 0 (–) |
Psychiatric Co-occurring Disorders
ASD | COM | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All ages | Young | Middle | Older | Young versus middle versus older | All ages | Young | Middle | Older | Young versus middle versus older | ASD versus COM | |||||||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | Fisher’s χ2
| N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | Fisher’s χ2
| χ2
| |
Any psychiatric disorder | 109 | 79.0 | 38 | 82.6 | 41 | 87.2 | 30 | 66.7 | 6.02* | 83 | 48.8 | 30 | 50.0 | 19 | 41.3 | 34 | 53.1 | 1.55 | 29.52*** |
Mood disorders | 79 | 57.2 | 24 | 52.2 | 35 | 74.5 | 20 | 44.4 | 9.30** | 31 | 18.2 | 9 | 15.0 | 9 | 19.6 | 13 | 20.3 | 0.70 | 50.49*** |
Depression | 74 | 53.6 | 19 | 52.2 | 31 | 66.0 | 19 | 42.2 | 5.24+
| 28 | 16.5 | 9 | 15.0 | 8 | 17.4 | 11 | 17.2 | 0.20 | 47.47*** |
Dysthymia | 25 | 18.1 | 6 | 13.0 | 13 | 27.7 | 6 | 13.3 | 4.04 | 5 | 2.9 | 1 | 1.7 | 2 | 4.3 | 2 | 3.1 | 0.86 | 19.95*** |
PDysD (only females) | 9 | 20.9 | 3 | 18.8 | 3 | 16.7 | 3 | 33.3 | 5.16 | 2 | 2.7 | 1 | 4.3 | 1 | 4.3 | 0 | – | 3.00 | 14.34*** |
Anxiety disorders | 74 | 53.6 | 30 | 65.2 | 25 | 53.2 | 19 | 42.2 | 4.81+
| 25 | 14.7 | 8 | 13.3 | 8 | 17.4 | 9 | 14.1 | 0.44 | 52.89*** |
Panic disorder | 21 | 15.2 | 11 | 23.9 | 6 | 12.8 | 4 | 8.9 | 4.01 | 6 | 3.5 | 3 | 5.0 | 1 | 2.2 | 2 | 3.1 | 0.68 | 13.01*** |
Agoraphobia | 29 | 21.0 | 10 | 21.7 | 9 | 19.1 | 10 | 22.2 | 0.20 | 6 | 3.5 | 1 | 1.7 | 3 | 6.5 | 2 | 3.1 | 1.77 | 23.12*** |
Social phobia | 21 | 15.2 | 10 | 21.7 | 10 | 21.3 | 1 | 2.2 | 10.23** | 8 | 4.7 | 3 | 5.0 | 3 | 6.5 | 2 | 3.2 | 0.86 | 9.87** |
Specific phobia | 16 | 11.6 | 5 | 10.9 | 7 | 14.9 | 4 | 8.9 | 0.84 | 8 | 4.7 | 1 | 1.7 | 1 | 2.2 | 6 | 9.4 | 4.11 | 5.03* |
PTSS | 4 | 2.9 | 1 | 2.2 | 3 | 6.4 | 0 | – | 4.66 | 1 | 0.6 | 0 | – | 1 | 2.2 | 0 | – | 2.28 | 6.36* |
OCD | 30 | 21.7 | 13 | 28.3 | 10 | 21.3 | 7 | 15.6 | 5.85 | 1 | 0.6 | 0 | – | 1 | 2.2 | 0 | – | 2.28 | 40.68*** |
GAD | 22 | 15.9 | 8 | 17.4 | 9 | 19.1 | 5 | 11.1 | 3.12 | 5 | 2.9 | 2 | 3.3 | 2 | 4.3 | 1 | 1.6 | 1.00 | 17.50*** |
Substance-related disorders | 22 | 15.9 | 9 | 19.6 | 5 | 10.6 | 8 | 17.8 | 1.60 | 43 | 25.3 | 20 | 33.3 | 9 | 19.6 | 14 | 21.9 | 3.10 | 4.00* |
Eating disorders | 8 | 5.8 | 4 | 8.7 | 3 | 6.4 | 1 | 2.2 | 1.79 | 1 | 0.6 | 1 | 1.7 | 0 | – | 0 | – | 1.74 | 7.29* |
Somatoform disorders | 8 | 5.8 | 6 | 13.0 | 2 | 4.3 | 0 | – | 6.72* | 3 | 1.8 | 0 | – | 1 | 2.2 | 2 | 3.1 | 1.81 | 3.60+
|
Attentional and behavioral disorders | 43 | 31.2 | 14 | 30.4 | 16 | 34.0 | 13 | 28.9 | 0.33 | 9 | 5.3 | 5 | 8.3 | 2 | 4.3 | 2 | 3.1 | 1.65 | 36.31*** |
ADHDa
| 42 | 30.4 | 14 | 30.4 | 15 | 31.9 | 13 | 28.9 | 0.13 | 9 | 5.3 | 5 | 8.3 | 2 | 4.3 | 2 | 3.1 | 1.65 | 34.84*** |
Inattentive | 14 | 10.1 | 5 | 10.9 | 3 | 6.4 | 6 | 13.3 | 1.30 | 4 | 2.4 | 3 | 5.0 | 1 | 2.2 | 0 | – | 3.05 | 8.40** |
Hyperactivity/impulsivity | 18 | 13.0 | 6 | 13.0 | 8 | 17.0 | 4 | 8.9 | 1.33 | 5 | 2.9 | 2 | 3.3 | 1 | 2.2 | 2 | 3.1 | 0.32 | 11.25*** |
Combined | 10 | 7.2 | 3 | 6.5 | 4 | 8.5 | 3 | 6.7 | 0.28 | 0 | – | 0 | – | 0 | – | 0 | – | – | 12.73*** |
Conduct disorder | 3 | 2.2 | 1 | 2.2 | 2 | 4.3 | 0 | – | 4.46 | 1 | 0.6 | 0 | – | 1 | 2.2 | 0 | – | 2.28 | 4.35 |
ASD | COM | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All ages | Young | Middle | Older | All ages | Young | Middle | Older | |||||||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | |
No DSM-IV diagnoses | 29 | 21.0 | 8 | 17.4 | 6 | 12.8 | 15 | 33.3 | 87 | 51.2 | 30 | 50.0 | 27 | 58.7 | 30 | 46.9 |
1 DSM-IV diagnosis | 28 | 20.3 | 6 | 13.0 | 13 | 27.7 | 9 | 20.0 | 56 | 32.9 | 16 | 26.7 | 13 | 28.3 | 27 | 42.2 |
2 DSM-IV diagnoses | 19 | 13.8 | 8 | 17.4 | 7 | 14.9 | 4 | 8.9 | 16 | 9.4 | 8 | 13.3 | 3 | 6.5 | 5 | 7.8 |
3 DSM-IV diagnoses | 24 | 17.4 | 8 | 17.4 | 6 | 12.8 | 10 | 22.2 | 4 | 2.4 | 2 | 3.3 | 1 | 2.2 | 1 | 1.6 |
4 DSM-IV diagnoses | 17 | 12.3 | 9 | 19.6 | 3 | 6.4 | 5 | 11.1 | 2 | 1.2 | 2 | 3.3 | 0 | – | 0 | – |
>4 DSM-IV diagnoses | 21 | 15.2 | 7 | 15.2 | 12 | 25.5 | 2 | 4.4 | 5 | 2.9 | 2 | 3.3 | 2 | 4.3 | 1 | 1.6 |
Associations Between Potential Risk Factors and Mood and Anxiety Symptoms
Depression | Anxiety | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | t | 95 % CI | B | SE | t | 95 % CI | |
Age | −0.05 | 0.07 | −0.75 | −0.18 to 0.08 | −0.10 | 0.06 | −1.62 | −0.23 to 0.02 |
Gender | 4.24 | 2.33 | 1.82 | −0.37 to 8.84 | 3.85 | 2.25 | 1.71 | −0.61 to 8.31 |
Education | −1.98 | 2.23 | −0.89 | −6.40 to 2.44 | −3.04 | 2.16 | −1.41 | −7.31 to 1.24 |
Living situation | −0.53 | 1.06 | −0.50 | −2.63 to 1.58 | −0.93 | 1.03 | −0.91 | −2.97 to 1.10 |
ISCO | 0.05 | 0.73 | 0.07 | −1.38 to 1.49 | 0.43 | 0.70 | 0.62 | −0.96 to 1.83 |
IQ | −0.06 | 0.07 | −0.93 | −0.19 to 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.18 | −0.11 to 0.14 |
MMSE | −0.57 | 1.04 | −0.55 | −2.63 to 1.49 | −1.39 | 1.01 | −1.38 | −3.39 to 0.60 |
AQ | 0.45 | 0.12 | 3.62*** | 0.20 to 0.69 | 0.40 | 0.12 | 3.33*** | 0.16 to 0.63 |
ADOS | 0.89 | 0.34 | 2.66** | 0.23 to 1.56 | 0.77 | 0.33 | 2.38* | 0.13 to 1.42 |
Constant | 36.94 | 28.45 | 1.30 | −19.37 to 93.26 | 57.94 | 27.54 | 2.10* | 3.44 to 112.45 |
R2
| 20.5 % | 20.9 % | ||||||
N | 134 | 134 |
Associations Between Potential Risk Factors and any Mood and Anxiety Disorder
Any mood disorder | Any anxiety disorder | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | Odds Ratio | 95 % CI | B | SE | Odds Ratio | 95 % CI | |
Age | −0.00 | 0.01 | 1.00 | 0.97 to 1.02 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.97* | 0.94 to 1.00 |
Gender | 1.46 | 0.49 | 4.29** | 1.65 to 11.18 | 0.85 | 0.52 | 2.33 | 0.85 to 6.42 |
Education | −0.14 | 0.44 | 0.87 | 0.37 to 2.04 | −0.67 | 0.50 | 0.51 | 0.19 to 1.37 |
Living situation | 0.18 | 0.21 | 1.20 | 0.80 to 1.80 | 0.04 | 0.23 | 1.05 | 0.67 to 1.64 |
ISCO | −0.14 | 0.14 | 0.87 | 0.66 to 1.15 | 0.09 | 0.16 | 1.09 | 0.80 to 1.48 |
IQ | −0.00 | 0.01 | 1.00 | 0.97 to 1.02 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.99 | 0.96 to 1.02 |
MMSE | −0.03 | 0.20 | 0.97 | 0.66 to 1.43 | 0.00 | 0.23 | 1.00 | 0.65 to 1.56 |
AQ | 0.01 | 0.02 | 1.01 | 0.97 to 1.06 | 0.15 | 0.03 | 1.16*** | 1.09 to 1.24 |
ADOS | 0.02 | 0.07 | 1.02 | 0.90 to 1.16 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 1.04 | 0.90 to 1.20 |
Constant | −0.56 | 5.42 | 0.57 | −2.18 | 6.07 | 0.11 | ||
N | 134 | 134 |