Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in: Cognitive Therapy and Research 2/2009

01-04-2009 | Original Article

Phenomenological Characteristics of Attentional Biases Towards Threat: A Critical Review

Auteurs: Josh M. Cisler, Amy K. Bacon, Nathan L. Williams

Gepubliceerd in: Cognitive Therapy and Research | Uitgave 2/2009

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Abstract

Although research has consistently revealed the presence of a general attentional bias towards threat, empirical and theoretical ambiguity exists in determining whether attentional biases are comprised of facilitated attention to threat, difficulty in disengagement from threat, or both, as well as whether attentional biases reflect automatic or strategic processes. This paper reviews empirical investigations across four common assessment tasks: the Stroop (masked and unmasked), dot probe, visual search, and the Posner tasks. Although the review finds inconsistencies both within and between assessment tasks, the evidence suggests that attentional biases towards threat are comprised of each of the phenomenological characteristics addressed in this paper. Contemporary theoretical models of attentional biases in anxiety are summarized and critically reviewed in light of the current evidence. Suggestions for future research are addressed, including a need to investigate the psychometric properties of the assessment tasks, to utilize consistent theoretically driven operationalizations of attentional biases, and to provide a temporal description of the characteristics of attentional biases towards threat.
Voetnoten
1
Lipp and Waters (2007) did not also test for facilitated attention. Therefore, their results do only demonstrate difficulty in disengagement but they do not rule out facilitated attention.
 
2
Flykt and Caldara (2006) did not also test for difficulty in disengagement. Therefore, their results do only demonstrate facilitated attention but they do not rule out difficulty in disengagement.
 
Literatuur
go back to reference Algom, D., Chajut, E., & Lev, S. (2004). A rational look at the emotional Stroop paradigm: A generic slowdown, not a Stroop effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 323–338.CrossRef Algom, D., Chajut, E., & Lev, S. (2004). A rational look at the emotional Stroop paradigm: A generic slowdown, not a Stroop effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 323–338.CrossRef
go back to reference Amir, N., McNally, R. J., Riemann, B. C., Burns, J., Lorenz, M., & Mullen, J. T. (1996). Suppression of the emotional Stroop effect by increased anxiety in patients with social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 11, 945–948.CrossRef Amir, N., McNally, R. J., Riemann, B. C., Burns, J., Lorenz, M., & Mullen, J. T. (1996). Suppression of the emotional Stroop effect by increased anxiety in patients with social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 11, 945–948.CrossRef
go back to reference Anderson, A. K., & Phelps, E. A. (2001). Lesions of the human amygdala impair enhanced perception of emotionally salient events. Nature, 411, 305–309.PubMedCrossRef Anderson, A. K., & Phelps, E. A. (2001). Lesions of the human amygdala impair enhanced perception of emotionally salient events. Nature, 411, 305–309.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1325–1335.PubMedCrossRef Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1325–1335.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. H., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and non-anxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1–24.PubMedCrossRef Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. H., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and non-anxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1–24.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 49–58.PubMedCrossRef Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 49–58.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Falla, S. J., & Hamilton, L. R. (1998). Attentional bias for threatening facial expressions in anxiety: Manipulation of stimulus duration. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 737–753.CrossRef Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Falla, S. J., & Hamilton, L. R. (1998). Attentional bias for threatening facial expressions in anxiety: Manipulation of stimulus duration. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 737–753.CrossRef
go back to reference Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Millar, N., & White, J. (1995). Selective processing of negative information: Effects of clinical anxiety, concurrent depression, and awareness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 532–536.PubMedCrossRef Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Millar, N., & White, J. (1995). Selective processing of negative information: Effects of clinical anxiety, concurrent depression, and awareness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 532–536.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., White, J., Groom, C., & de Bono, J. (1999). Attentional bias for emotional faces in generalized anxiety disorder. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 267–278.PubMedCrossRef Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., White, J., Groom, C., & de Bono, J. (1999). Attentional bias for emotional faces in generalized anxiety disorder. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 267–278.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Buckley, T. C., Blanchard, E. B., & Hickling, E. J. (2002). Automatic and strategic processing of threat stimuli: A comparison between PTSD, panic disorder, and non-anxiety controls. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 97–115.CrossRef Buckley, T. C., Blanchard, E. B., & Hickling, E. J. (2002). Automatic and strategic processing of threat stimuli: A comparison between PTSD, panic disorder, and non-anxiety controls. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 97–115.CrossRef
go back to reference Bundesen, C., Habekost, T., & Kyllingsbaek, S. (2005). A neural theory of visual attention: Bridging cognition and neuroscience. Psychological Review, 112, 291–328.PubMedCrossRef Bundesen, C., Habekost, T., & Kyllingsbaek, S. (2005). A neural theory of visual attention: Bridging cognition and neuroscience. Psychological Review, 112, 291–328.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Byrne, A., & Eysenck, M. W. (1995). Trait anxiety, anxious mood, and threat detection. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 549–562.CrossRef Byrne, A., & Eysenck, M. W. (1995). Trait anxiety, anxious mood, and threat detection. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 549–562.CrossRef
go back to reference Chen, Y. P., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., & Mansell, W. (2002). Patients with generalized social phobia direct their attention away from faces. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 677–687.PubMedCrossRef Chen, Y. P., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., & Mansell, W. (2002). Patients with generalized social phobia direct their attention away from faces. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 677–687.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Constans, J. I., Vasterling, J. J., McCloskey, M. S., & Brailey, K. (2004). Suppression of attentional bias in PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 315–323.PubMedCrossRef Constans, J. I., Vasterling, J. J., McCloskey, M. S., & Brailey, K. (2004). Suppression of attentional bias in PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 315–323.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Dalgleish, T., Taghavi, R., Neshat-Doost, H., Moradi, A., Canterbury, R., & Yule, W. (2003). Patterns of processing bias for emotional information across clinical disorders: A comparison of attention, memory, and prospective cognition in children and adolescents with depression, generalized anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 10–21.PubMed Dalgleish, T., Taghavi, R., Neshat-Doost, H., Moradi, A., Canterbury, R., & Yule, W. (2003). Patterns of processing bias for emotional information across clinical disorders: A comparison of attention, memory, and prospective cognition in children and adolescents with depression, generalized anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 10–21.PubMed
go back to reference Devineni, T., Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., & Buckley, T. C. (2004). Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in motor vehicle accident-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 211–231.PubMedCrossRef Devineni, T., Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., & Buckley, T. C. (2004). Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in motor vehicle accident-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 211–231.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Eide, P., Kemp, A., Silberstein, R. B., & Nathan, P. J. (2002). Test-retest reliability of the emotional Stroop task: Examining the paradox of measurement change. The Journal of Psychology, 136, 514–520.PubMedCrossRef Eide, P., Kemp, A., Silberstein, R. B., & Nathan, P. J. (2002). Test-retest reliability of the emotional Stroop task: Examining the paradox of measurement change. The Journal of Psychology, 136, 514–520.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Flykt, A., & Caldara, R. (2006). Tracking fear in snake and spider fearful participants during visual search: A multi-response domain study. Cognition and Emotion, 20, 1075–1091.CrossRef Flykt, A., & Caldara, R. (2006). Tracking fear in snake and spider fearful participants during visual search: A multi-response domain study. Cognition and Emotion, 20, 1075–1091.CrossRef
go back to reference Fox, E. (2004). Maintenance or capture of attention in anxiety-related biases? In J. Yiend (Ed.), Cognition, emotion, and psychopathology: Theoretical, empirical and clinical directions (pp 86–105). New York: Cambridge University Press. Fox, E. (2004). Maintenance or capture of attention in anxiety-related biases? In J. Yiend (Ed.), Cognition, emotion, and psychopathology: Theoretical, empirical and clinical directions (pp 86–105). New York: Cambridge University Press.
go back to reference Fox, E., Russo, R., & Dutton, K. (2002). Attentional bias for threat: Evidence for delayed disengagement from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 355–379.PubMedCrossRef Fox, E., Russo, R., & Dutton, K. (2002). Attentional bias for threat: Evidence for delayed disengagement from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 355–379.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R., & Dutton, K. (2001). Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 681–700.CrossRef Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R., & Dutton, K. (2001). Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 681–700.CrossRef
go back to reference Garner, M., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Orienting and maintenance of gaze to facial expressions in social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 760–770.PubMedCrossRef Garner, M., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Orienting and maintenance of gaze to facial expressions in social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 760–770.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Gilboa-Schechtman, E., Foa, E. B., & Amir, N. (1999). Attentional biases for facial expressions in social phobia: The face-in-the-crowd paradigm. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 305–318.CrossRef Gilboa-Schechtman, E., Foa, E. B., & Amir, N. (1999). Attentional biases for facial expressions in social phobia: The face-in-the-crowd paradigm. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 305–318.CrossRef
go back to reference Gotlib, I. H., Kasch, K. L., Traill, S., Joormann, J., Arnow, B. A., & Johnson, S. L. (2004). Coherence and specificity of information-processing biases in depression and social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 386–398. Gotlib, I. H., Kasch, K. L., Traill, S., Joormann, J., Arnow, B. A., & Johnson, S. L. (2004). Coherence and specificity of information-processing biases in depression and social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 386–398.
go back to reference Harvey, A. G., Bryant, R. A., & Rapee, R. M. (1996). Preconscious processing of threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 613–623.CrossRef Harvey, A. G., Bryant, R. A., & Rapee, R. M. (1996). Preconscious processing of threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 613–623.CrossRef
go back to reference Juth, P., Lundqvist, D., Karlsson, A., & Öhman, A. (2005). Looking for foes and friends: Perceptual and emotional factors when finding a face in the crowd. Emotion, 5, 379–395.PubMedCrossRef Juth, P., Lundqvist, D., Karlsson, A., & Öhman, A. (2005). Looking for foes and friends: Perceptual and emotional factors when finding a face in the crowd. Emotion, 5, 379–395.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Kindt, M., Bierman, D., & Brosschot, J. F. (1996). Stroop versus Stroop: Comparison of a card format and a single-trial format of the standard color-word Stroop task and emotional Stroop task. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 653–661.CrossRef Kindt, M., Bierman, D., & Brosschot, J. F. (1996). Stroop versus Stroop: Comparison of a card format and a single-trial format of the standard color-word Stroop task and emotional Stroop task. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 653–661.CrossRef
go back to reference Koster, E. H., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: Differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1183–1192.PubMedCrossRef Koster, E. H., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: Differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1183–1192.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Vershuere, B., Van Damme, S., & Wiersema, J. R. (2006). Components of attentional bias to threat in high trait anxiety: Facilitated engagement, impaired disengagement, and attentional avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1757–1771.PubMedCrossRef Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Vershuere, B., Van Damme, S., & Wiersema, J. R. (2006). Components of attentional bias to threat in high trait anxiety: Facilitated engagement, impaired disengagement, and attentional avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1757–1771.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Van Damme, S., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Does imminent threat capture and hold attention? Emotion, 4, 312–317.PubMedCrossRef Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Van Damme, S., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Does imminent threat capture and hold attention? Emotion, 4, 312–317.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Van Damme, S., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2005). Signals for threat modulate attentional capture and holding: Fear-conditioning and extinction during the exogenous cueing task. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 771–780.CrossRef Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Van Damme, S., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2005). Signals for threat modulate attentional capture and holding: Fear-conditioning and extinction during the exogenous cueing task. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 771–780.CrossRef
go back to reference Koster, E. H. W., Verschuere, B., Crombez, G., & Van Damme, S. (2005). Time-course of attention for threatening pictures in high and low trait anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1087–1098.PubMedCrossRef Koster, E. H. W., Verschuere, B., Crombez, G., & Van Damme, S. (2005). Time-course of attention for threatening pictures in high and low trait anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1087–1098.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Attention to threat in anxiety-prone individuals: Mechanisms underlying attentional bias. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 635–643.CrossRef Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Attention to threat in anxiety-prone individuals: Mechanisms underlying attentional bias. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 635–643.CrossRef
go back to reference Kyrios, M., & Iob M. A. (1998). Automatic and strategic processing in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Attentional bias, cognitive avoidance, or more complex phenomena? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 12, 271–292.PubMedCrossRef Kyrios, M., & Iob M. A. (1998). Automatic and strategic processing in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Attentional bias, cognitive avoidance, or more complex phenomena? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 12, 271–292.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Lipp, O. V., & Waters, A. M. (2007). When danger lurks in the background: Attentional capture by animal fear-relevant distracters is specific and selectively enhanced by animal fear. Emotion, 7, 192–200.PubMedCrossRef Lipp, O. V., & Waters, A. M. (2007). When danger lurks in the background: Attentional capture by animal fear-relevant distracters is specific and selectively enhanced by animal fear. Emotion, 7, 192–200.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference MacLeod, C., & Hagan, R. (1992). Individual differences in the selective processing of threatening information, and emotional responses to a stressful life event. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 151–161.PubMedCrossRef MacLeod, C., & Hagan, R. (1992). Individual differences in the selective processing of threatening information, and emotional responses to a stressful life event. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 151–161.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Anxiety and the allocation of attention to threat. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 653–670.PubMed MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Anxiety and the allocation of attention to threat. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 653–670.PubMed
go back to reference MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in the emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15–20.PubMedCrossRef MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in the emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15–20.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L. (2002). Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 107–123.PubMedCrossRef MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L. (2002). Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 107–123.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mathews, A., & Mackintosh, B. (1998). A cognitive model of selective processing in anxiety. Cognition and Anxiety, 22, 539–560. Mathews, A., & Mackintosh, B. (1998). A cognitive model of selective processing in anxiety. Cognition and Anxiety, 22, 539–560.
go back to reference Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (2002). Induced processing biases have causal effects on anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 331–354.CrossRef Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (2002). Induced processing biases have causal effects on anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 331–354.CrossRef
go back to reference Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 167–195.PubMedCrossRef Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 167–195.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference McNally, R. J. (1995). Automaticity and the anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 747–754.PubMedCrossRef McNally, R. J. (1995). Automaticity and the anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 747–754.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Miltner, W. H. R., Krieschel, S., Hecht, H., Trippe, R., & Weiss, T. (2004). Eye movements and behavioral responses to threatening and nonthreatening stimuli during visual search in phobic and nonphobic subjects. Emotion, 4, 323–339.PubMedCrossRef Miltner, W. H. R., Krieschel, S., Hecht, H., Trippe, R., & Weiss, T. (2004). Eye movements and behavioral responses to threatening and nonthreatening stimuli during visual search in phobic and nonphobic subjects. Emotion, 4, 323–339.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1998). A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 809–848.PubMedCrossRef Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1998). A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 809–848.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1999). Some methodological issues in assessing attentional biases for threatening faces in anxiety: A replication study using a modified version of the probe detection task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 595–604.PubMedCrossRef Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1999). Some methodological issues in assessing attentional biases for threatening faces in anxiety: A replication study using a modified version of the probe detection task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 595–604.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). A cognitive-motivational perspective on the processing of threat information and anxiety In J. Yiend (Ed.), Cognition, emotion, and psychopathology: Theoretical, empirical and clinical directions (pp. 68–85). New York: Cambridge University Press. Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). A cognitive-motivational perspective on the processing of threat information and anxiety In J. Yiend (Ed.), Cognition, emotion, and psychopathology: Theoretical, empirical and clinical directions (pp. 68–85). New York: Cambridge University Press.
go back to reference Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2005). Attentional bias in generalized anxiety disorder versus depressive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 29–45.CrossRef Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2005). Attentional bias in generalized anxiety disorder versus depressive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 29–45.CrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Hallowell, N. (1994). Attentional bias to threat: Roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 47, 841–864.PubMed Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Hallowell, N. (1994). Attentional bias to threat: Roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 47, 841–864.PubMed
go back to reference Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Williams, R., & Mathews, A. (1993). Subliminal processing of emotional information in anxiety and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 304–311.PubMedCrossRef Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Williams, R., & Mathews, A. (1993). Subliminal processing of emotional information in anxiety and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 304–311.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Bono, J. D., & Painter, M. (1997). Time course of attentional bias for threat information in non-clinical anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 297–303.PubMedCrossRef Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Bono, J. D., & Painter, M. (1997). Time course of attentional bias for threat information in non-clinical anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 297–303.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Miles, F., & Dixon, C. (2004). Time course of attentional bias for threat scenes: Testing the vigilance-avoidance hypothesis. Cognition and Emotion, 18, 689–700.CrossRef Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Miles, F., & Dixon, C. (2004). Time course of attentional bias for threat scenes: Testing the vigilance-avoidance hypothesis. Cognition and Emotion, 18, 689–700.CrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Millar, N., & White, J. (1995). A follow-up study of cognitive bias in generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 927–935.PubMedCrossRef Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Millar, N., & White, J. (1995). A follow-up study of cognitive bias in generalized anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 927–935.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Dixon, C., Fisher, H. T., & McWilliams, A. (2000). Trait anxiety, defensiveness and selective processing of threat: An investigation using two measures of attentional bias. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 1063–1077.CrossRef Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Dixon, C., Fisher, H. T., & McWilliams, A. (2000). Trait anxiety, defensiveness and selective processing of threat: An investigation using two measures of attentional bias. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 1063–1077.CrossRef
go back to reference Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Williams, R. (1995). Attentional bias in anxiety and depression: The role of awareness. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 17–36.PubMed Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Williams, R. (1995). Attentional bias in anxiety and depression: The role of awareness. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 17–36.PubMed
go back to reference Monk, C. S., Nelson, E. E., Woldehawariat, G., Montgomery, L. A., Zarahn, E., McClure, E. B., et al. (2004). Experience-dependent plasticity for attention to threat: Behavioral and neurophysiological evidence in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 607–610.PubMedCrossRef Monk, C. S., Nelson, E. E., Woldehawariat, G., Montgomery, L. A., Zarahn, E., McClure, E. B., et al. (2004). Experience-dependent plasticity for attention to threat: Behavioral and neurophysiological evidence in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 607–610.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Moritz, S., Jacobsen, D., Kloss, M., Fricke, S., Rufer, M., & Hand, I. (2004). Examination of emotional strop interference in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 671–682.PubMedCrossRef Moritz, S., Jacobsen, D., Kloss, M., Fricke, S., Rufer, M., & Hand, I. (2004). Examination of emotional strop interference in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 671–682.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Nay, W. T., Thorpe, G. L., Roberson-Nay, R., Hecker, J. E., & Sigmon, S. T. (2004). Attentional bias to threat and emotional response to biological challenge. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 609–627.PubMedCrossRef Nay, W. T., Thorpe, G. L., Roberson-Nay, R., Hecker, J. E., & Sigmon, S. T. (2004). Attentional bias to threat and emotional response to biological challenge. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 609–627.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Norman, D. A. (1968). Toward a theory of memory and attention. Psychological Review, 75, 522–536.CrossRef Norman, D. A. (1968). Toward a theory of memory and attention. Psychological Review, 75, 522–536.CrossRef
go back to reference Öhman, A. (2005). The role of the amygdala in human fear: Automatic detection of threat. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 953–958.PubMedCrossRef Öhman, A. (2005). The role of the amygdala in human fear: Automatic detection of threat. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 953–958.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Öhman, A., & Wiens, S. (2005). The concept of an evolved fear module and cognitive theories of anxiety. Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam symposium (pp. 58–80). Öhman, A., & Wiens, S. (2005). The concept of an evolved fear module and cognitive theories of anxiety. Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam symposium (pp. 58–80).
go back to reference Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466–478.CrossRef Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466–478.CrossRef
go back to reference Pflugshaupt, T., Mosimann, U. P., von Wartburg, R., Schmitt, W., Nyffeler, T., & Muri, R. M. (2005). Hypervigilance-avoidance pattern in spider phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19, 105–116.PubMedCrossRef Pflugshaupt, T., Mosimann, U. P., von Wartburg, R., Schmitt, W., Nyffeler, T., & Muri, R. M. (2005). Hypervigilance-avoidance pattern in spider phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19, 105–116.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: From animal models to human behavior. Neuron, 48, 175–187.PubMedCrossRef Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: From animal models to human behavior. Neuron, 48, 175–187.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Pishyar, R., Harris, L. M., & Menzies, R. G. (2004). Attentional bias for words and faces in social anxiety. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 17, 23–36.CrossRef Pishyar, R., Harris, L. M., & Menzies, R. G. (2004). Attentional bias for words and faces in social anxiety. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 17, 23–36.CrossRef
go back to reference Posner, M. I., (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3–25.PubMedCrossRef Posner, M. I., (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3–25.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Rinck, M., Becker, E. S., Kellermann, J., & Roth, W. T. (2003). Selective attention in anxiety: Distraction and enhancement in visual search. Depression and Anxiety, 18, 18–28.PubMedCrossRef Rinck, M., Becker, E. S., Kellermann, J., & Roth, W. T. (2003). Selective attention in anxiety: Distraction and enhancement in visual search. Depression and Anxiety, 18, 18–28.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Rinck, M., Reinecke, A., Ellwart, T., Heuer, K., & Becker, E. S. (2005). Speeded detection and increased distraction in fear of spiders: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 235–248.PubMedCrossRef Rinck, M., Reinecke, A., Ellwart, T., Heuer, K., & Becker, E. S. (2005). Speeded detection and increased distraction in fear of spiders: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 235–248.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Salemink, E., van den Hout, M. A., & Kindt, M. (2007). Selective attention and threat: Quick orienting versus slow disengagement and two versions of the dot probe task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 607–615.PubMedCrossRef Salemink, E., van den Hout, M. A., & Kindt, M. (2007). Selective attention and threat: Quick orienting versus slow disengagement and two versions of the dot probe task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 607–615.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., Lee, T. C., & Tolin, D. F. (1999). Exposure to disgust-evoking imagery and information processing biases in blood-injection-injury phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 249–257.PubMedCrossRef Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., Lee, T. C., & Tolin, D. F. (1999). Exposure to disgust-evoking imagery and information processing biases in blood-injection-injury phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 249–257.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Schmukle, S. C. (2005). Unreliability of the dot probe task. European Journal of Personality, 19, 595–605.CrossRef Schmukle, S. C. (2005). Unreliability of the dot probe task. European Journal of Personality, 19, 595–605.CrossRef
go back to reference Siegrist, M. (1997). Test-retest reliability of different versions of the Stroop test. The Journal of Psychology, 131, 299–306.CrossRef Siegrist, M. (1997). Test-retest reliability of different versions of the Stroop test. The Journal of Psychology, 131, 299–306.CrossRef
go back to reference Smith, S. D., Most, S. B., Newsome, L. A., & Zald, D. H. (2006). An emotion-induced attentional blink elicited by aversively conditioned stimuli. Emotion, 6, 523–527.PubMedCrossRef Smith, S. D., Most, S. B., Newsome, L. A., & Zald, D. H. (2006). An emotion-induced attentional blink elicited by aversively conditioned stimuli. Emotion, 6, 523–527.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662. (Reprinted in 1992 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 15–23.CrossRef Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662. (Reprinted in 1992 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 15–23.CrossRef
go back to reference Thorpe, S. J., & Salkovskis, P. M. (1997). Information processing in spider phobics: The Stroop colour naming task may indicate strategic but not automatic attentional bias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 131–144.PubMedCrossRef Thorpe, S. J., & Salkovskis, P. M. (1997). Information processing in spider phobics: The Stroop colour naming task may indicate strategic but not automatic attentional bias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 131–144.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Van Damme, S., Crombez, G., Hermans, D., Koster, E. H. W., & Eccleston C. (2006). The role of extinction and reinstatement in attentional bias to threat: A conditioning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1555–1563.PubMedCrossRef Van Damme, S., Crombez, G., Hermans, D., Koster, E. H. W., & Eccleston C. (2006). The role of extinction and reinstatement in attentional bias to threat: A conditioning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1555–1563.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference van den Hout, M., Tenney, N., Huygens, K., Merckelbach, H., & Kindt, M. (1995). Responding to subliminal threat cues is related to trait anxiety and emotional vulnerability: a successful replication of MacLeod and Hagan (1992). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 451–454.PubMedCrossRef van den Hout, M., Tenney, N., Huygens, K., Merckelbach, H., & Kindt, M. (1995). Responding to subliminal threat cues is related to trait anxiety and emotional vulnerability: a successful replication of MacLeod and Hagan (1992). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 451–454.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference van den Hout, M., Tenney, N., Huygens, K., & de Jong, P. (1997). Preconscious processing of bias in specific phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 29–34.PubMedCrossRef van den Hout, M., Tenney, N., Huygens, K., & de Jong, P. (1997). Preconscious processing of bias in specific phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 29–34.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference van Honk, J., Tuiten, A., van den Hout, M., Putman, P., de Haan, E., & Stam, H. (2001). Selective attention to unmasked and masked threatening words: Relationships to trait anger and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 711–720.CrossRef van Honk, J., Tuiten, A., van den Hout, M., Putman, P., de Haan, E., & Stam, H. (2001). Selective attention to unmasked and masked threatening words: Relationships to trait anger and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 711–720.CrossRef
go back to reference Wikström, J., Lundh, L., Westerlund, J., Hogman, L. (2004). Preattentive bias for snake words in snake phobia? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 949–970.PubMedCrossRef Wikström, J., Lundh, L., Westerlund, J., Hogman, L. (2004). Preattentive bias for snake words in snake phobia? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 949–970.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Williams, J. M. G, Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3–24.PubMedCrossRef Williams, J. M. G, Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3–24.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. Chichester: Wiley. Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. Chichester: Wiley.
go back to reference Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1997). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders (2nd ed.). Chistester: Wiley. Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1997). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders (2nd ed.). Chistester: Wiley.
go back to reference Wilson, E., & MacLeod, M. (2003). Contrasting two accounts of anxiety-linked attentional bias: selective attention to varying levels of stimulus threat intensity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 212–218.PubMedCrossRef Wilson, E., & MacLeod, M. (2003). Contrasting two accounts of anxiety-linked attentional bias: selective attention to varying levels of stimulus threat intensity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 212–218.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Yiend, J., & Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 665–681. Yiend, J., & Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 665–681.
Metagegevens
Titel
Phenomenological Characteristics of Attentional Biases Towards Threat: A Critical Review
Auteurs
Josh M. Cisler
Amy K. Bacon
Nathan L. Williams
Publicatiedatum
01-04-2009
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Cognitive Therapy and Research / Uitgave 2/2009
Print ISSN: 0147-5916
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-2819
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9161-y

Andere artikelen Uitgave 2/2009

Cognitive Therapy and Research 2/2009 Naar de uitgave