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The revolutionary notion of ‘electrical remodelling’ inspired many investigators to develop new clinical concepts including ‘the second factor’ to complement electrical remodelling, AF progression as an endpoint in clinical trials, and early AF management and early comprehensive upstream therapy to improve prognosis.
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Several significant paradigm shifts in AF treatment happened: rhythm control was offset by rate control in persistent AF, aggressive by lenient rate control in permanent AF, and acute restoration of sinus rhythm by the wait-and-see approach in recent-onset AF. Lately the concept that electrical cardioversion should be considered a diagnostic rather than a therapeutic procedure emerged. The RACE studies also fed the notion that besides stroke, AF patients are even more threatened by heart failure and cardiovascular death.
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Cardiovascular risk scores to steer AF management were developed and swept the world, among which CHA2DS2-VASc, HAS-BLED and HATCH scores.
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The RACE consortium strongly advocated nurse-led integrated chronic care for atrial fibrillation and demonstrated its overall effectiveness; nurses steering integrated care perform better than stand-alone doctors.
Introduction
Concept/Hypothesis | Result/Change | References | |
---|---|---|---|
RACE | Sinus rhythm better than AF | Rate control not inferior to rhythm control | |
Mending the rhythm improves prognosis | No change | [18] | |
Rhythm control affects sudden death? | No impact | [42] | |
Sex differences may exist in rate and rhythm control outcomes | Females suffer excess cardiovascular events under rhythm control | [26] | |
Rhythm control gives better QoL | No difference with RC | [25] | |
Costs lower with RC | Costs proven lower with RC | [24] | |
RC may be deleterious in patients with CHF | In patients with mild to moderate CHF, RC is not inferior to rhythm control | [43] | |
Clinical lone AF is not associated with cardiovascular events | Clinical lone AF is associated with bleeding and thromboembolism | [44] | |
Underlying comorbidities may affect outcome differently between rate and rhythm control | In hypertensives, pharmacological rhythm control is associated with cardiovascular morbidity/mortality; consider default RC | [45] | |
Anticoagulation should be bridged around surgery | Extremely low perioperative thromboembolism risk; interruption of warfarin less dangerous than previously thought | [22] | |
Strict RC is standard of care (comparison of RC in RACE (lenient) and AFFIRM (strict)) | Strict RC causes CV events, including excess artificial pacemaker implantations | [28] | |
RACE-II | Strict rate control with resting heart rate in AF recommended as <80 bpm | Lenient RC not inferior to strict RC | |
Strict RC in AF and HF improves symptoms, CV prognosis and QoL | No beneficial effect of strict RC in permanent AF patients | [48] | |
Strict RC improves QoL | Stringency of RC does not affect QoL; symptoms, sex, age, underlying disease affect QoL | [32] | |
Strict RC may fail, which predisposes to events | Strict RC fails in 33% of patients but is not associated with events; lenient RC is preferred | [30] | |
Digoxin affects morbidity and mortality | The use of digoxin was not associated with increased morbidity and mortality | [31] | |
RACE3 | Targeted ‘upstream therapy’ for secondary AF prevention unproven | First study to show improved rhythm outcome with upstream therapy | |
Optimal upstream therapy may not be feasible in all patients | Upstream therapy feasible in 57% of patients; it is associated with enhanced rhythm outcome | [37] | |
QoL change uncertain | Targeted therapy improves QoL, not necessarily through obtaining sinus rhythm | ||
RACE4 | Doctors manage AF better than nurses | (Experienced) nurses manage better | |
RACE‑V | AF progression is driven by hypercoagulation | Expected change: anticoagulation prevents AF progressions, not only stroke | |
Uncertain role for ILR | Expected: ILR detects temporal types of AF | ||
RACE6- CV@H | Electrical cardioversion must be done in-hospital | Expected change: cardioversion can be safely performed at home | |
RACE7- ACWAS | Early cardioversion better than delayed cardioversion for recent-onset AF | Delayed cardioversion not inferior to early cardioversion | |
RACE8- HF | Cryoballoon PVI improves prognosis in persistent AF and heart failure | Expected change: uncertain, remains to be seen | |
RACE9 | Cardioversion (early or delayed) remains a key procedure in recent-onset AF | Expected change: interventional rhythm control has no significant role in stable recent-onset AF | |
Telemonitoring in management of recent-onset AF has—as yet—no place! | Expected change: telemonitoring prevents needless interventions and keeps patients safely out-of-hospital |
The first RACE study: setting the stage, execution and aftermath
The birth of RACE-II
Upstream to RACE3
The Hendriks study and RACE4
RACE7-ACWAS—to cardiovert now or later?
Early cardioversion | Delayed cardioversion |
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Foreshortens time to conversion | Number of patients eventually in SR not affected |
Earlier elimination of fibrillation complaints? | Complaints equally reduced by reassurance and rate control |
Prevention of tachycardia-related adverse events? | Adverse events low and similar with both approaches |
Prompter discharge from the ED? | Even prompter discharge in delayed group |
Total time spent in ED shorter? No 2nd day needed | Total time spent shorter with delayed strategy, including 2nd day |
Prevents AF progression? | No persistent AF observed during FU |
Shorter time in AF prevents stroke? | Appropriate OAC prevents stroke; besides, AF duration is not a determinant of stroke |
Rate control? Mostly not looked after although 1/3 of AF recurs <30 days! | Rate control prevents high rates during recurrence |
Quality of life better? | Quality of life not different |
Burden to ED for more frequent cardioversions | Early discharge and planned CV reduces burden for ED |
Associated with failure to initiate anticoagulation | Idem (a bit less undertreatment in 1st detected AF) |