Stress-related illnesses are common in high-pressure industries such as advertising, emphasizing the need for effective interventions to enhance employee well-being. This study assessed the effectiveness of an online mindfulness-based intervention (OMBI) and identified adherence factors in employees of a German advertising agency.
Method
A mixed-methods approach was used. Study 1 employed a pre-post quasi-experimental design with 38 participants (21 in the intervention group, 17 in the control group) undergoing an eight-week online mindfulness program. Study 2 used semi-structured interviews to explore individual, organizational, and training-specific adherence factors.
Results
The intervention group showed significant reductions in cognitive irritation (t(20) = 3.34, p < 0.01, d = 0.73) and perceived stress (t(20) = 3.54, p < 0.01, d = 0.77), alongside increased mindfulness (t(20) = 3.19, p = 0.01, d = 0.70), while no significant changes occurred in the control group. Interviews identified factors influencing adherence, synthesized into the OMBI Adherence Matrix (OAM), highlighting Pre-Entry, First-Training, and Maintenance phases. Contextual factors included individual, organizational, and training-specific dimensions.
Conclusions
OMBIs effectively reduce stress and enhance mindfulness. The proposed model offers a framework for optimizing adherence in digital mindfulness programs and provides practical insights for high-stress environments such as advertising. Future research should refine the model and evaluate its application across industries to enhance the impact of digital mindfulness interventions.
In recent decades, there has been an increase in the prevalence of stress-related illnesses in various industries, including high-pressure fields such as advertising, where employees often face tight deadlines, high workloads, and constant pressure to deliver creative solutions (Khalid & Zubair, 2014). This work environment can heighten the risk of stress-related illnesses, such as depression and anxiety, leading to significant productivity loss (Deady et al., 2022). Globally, the economic impact of depression and anxiety is staggering, with an estimated 12 billion working days lost each year and a cost of approximately US$ 1 trillion per year in lost productivity (World Health Organization, 2022). Therefore, it is not surprising that the prevention and management of stress in the workplace is becoming an even greater concern for human resources management than it already has been (Tran et al., 2020). Recent reviews and meta-analyses indicate that mindfulness can effectively reduce stress and promote the health and well-being of employees (e.g., Bartlett et al., 2019; Johnson et al., 2020; Vonderlin et al., 2020).
The concept of mindfulness has its roots in Buddhism (Brown & Ryan, 2003) and is most often defined in general terms as “the awareness that arises through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145). In Western cultures, mindfulness is practiced as a spiritual exercise within Buddhism, but may be more commonly as a secular training to improve mental functioning and reduce stress (Jayawardene et al., 2017; Shapiro et al., 2006; Tomlinson et al., 2018).
From an organizational perspective, a key area of interest is the use of mindfulness-based interventions (MBI) to mitigate the adverse effects of stress on employees who are at higher risk of experiencing stress due to the nature of their job or work environment. MBIs involve structured group programs that explicitly teach mindfulness practices, which aim to enhance individuals' attentional control, self-awareness, and emotional regulation (Virgili, 2015). One of the most established and widely studied mindfulness-based interventions is Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Originally developed for patients with stress-related and chronic pain conditions, MBSR is a group-based structured intervention that integrates mindfulness and awareness practices derived from contemplative traditions, particularly Buddhist meditation, with elements from yoga, contemporary psychology, and the science of stress and emotion regulation (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). The standard MBSR program consists of eight weekly group sessions of approximately 2.5 h each, complemented by daily home practice of 45 to 90 min, combining formal and informal mindfulness exercises. In addition, the program includes a full Day of Practice—typically a 7- to 8-h silent retreat conducted between sessions six and seven—and an orientation and intake session of about one hour prior to the start of the course. The content of MBSR includes instruction and training in formal mindfulness practices (including sitting meditation, walking meditation, mindful yoga, and body scan), and sessions on specific topics such as stress reactivity and applying mindfulness skills to everyday challenging situations. Variants of MBSR and similar mindfulness-based programs have been developed for use in organizational settings (e.g., Lin et al., 2019; Malarkey et al., 2013).
According to Levit-Binnun et al. (2021), these practices can be further understood through the Mindfulness Map, which classifies mindfulness into four primary practice groups: (MG1) cultivating attention to present-moment somatic and sensory experience, (MG2) fostering a non-reactive and non-judgmental attitude toward experience, (MG3) developing wholesome and prosocial mental habits such as compassion and kindness, and (MG4) cultivating the ability to deconstruct perceptual, cognitive, and emotional experiences and biases. Together, these dimensions provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how MBIs support the cultivation of experiential insight and well-being across multiple levels of awareness. Numerous reviews and meta-analyses have demonstrated the effectiveness of MBIs in reducing the negative effects of stress on employees' health and well-being (e.g., Johnson et al., 2020; Vonderlin et al., 2020), which is why MBIs are integrated into several corporate healthcare programs. For example, the Search Inside Yourself (SIYLI) program, originally developed at Google as an internal mindfulness and emotional intelligence initiative, has since been formalized through the Search Inside Yourself Leadership Institute and adopted by various international corporations, including SAP, as part of their employee well-being and leadership development programs.
Due to rapid technological advancements and the increasing prevalence of mobile work, mindfulness-based interventions are increasingly being offered in online formats. This shift became even more important during the COVID-19 pandemic, when many trainers and organizations had to move their mindfulness programs from in-person to virtual formats to keep them accessible for participants. Several studies have found that online MBIs (OMBIs) have similar positive effects on e.g., stress reduction (Jayawardene et al., 2017), well-being or workplace performance (Nadler et al., 2020) as traditional MBIs.
However, despite a growing body of research on the effectiveness of OMBIs in the workplace (e.g., Aikens et al., 2014; Heckenberg et al., 2019; Lilly et al., 2019), little is known about the factors that influence adherence to such programs. While OMBIs offer a promising solution to the challenge of providing accessible and convenient mindfulness training, their effectiveness is ultimately dependent on participant engagement and completion (Cavanagh et al., 2013).
Adherence is a critical determinant of intervention outcomes, as consistent practice is necessary for participants to experience the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes associated with mindfulness. Meta-analytic evidence shows that lower levels of engagement and home practice are associated with weaker treatment effects and smaller improvements in well-being (Parsons et al., 2017).
Previous studies have explored adherence in other types of online interventions, such as psychological treatments (Beatty & Binnion, 2016), but there is limited literature on adherence to OMBIs in the workplace. For instance, Jayawardene et al. (2017) have called for more research on improving participants' adherence and retention, particularly when participants' motivation and need are low in the absence of diagnosed medical conditions. Furthermore, researchers have emphasized the need for more studies on the application of mindfulness interventions in organizational settings (Creswell, 2017; Lomas et al., 2017). As Vonderlin et al. (2020) stated, future studies should consider environmental factors that might facilitate or hinder adherence to MBIs at different hierarchical levels within organizations. Especially in organizations where employees face high workloads and fast-paced environments, such as in the advertising industry, a comprehensive understanding of the effectiveness and adherence factors of an OMBI is crucial. Recent industry reports indicate that employees in advertising and marketing frequently experience heavy workloads, tight deadlines, and elevated stress levels. For instance, a survey by Marketing Dive (2020) found that 82% of in-house creative teams reported an increase in workload due to growing digital demands. Similarly, a study by DJS Research (2023) revealed that one-third of advertising and marketing professionals had experienced stress or anxiety, with many attributing it directly to workplace pressures. These findings underscore that advertising professionals often operate under conditions of high workload and stress, making this industry a relevant context for examining the impact and adherence factors of online mindfulness-based interventions. Industries that are characterized by high workloads in particular can benefit from OMBIs, as they help employees to cope better in turbulent environments. Thus, OMBIs appear particularly relevant in advertising.
In advertising agencies, a culture of creativity shapes the work environment, fostering an atmosphere where innovative ideas can develop. For instance, creative teams engage in collaborative brainstorming meetings to conceptualize ad campaigns. This emphasizes the relevance of creativity as a driving force behind the success of advertising campaigns (Nyilasy et al., 2013). Central to the functioning of advertising agencies is collaboration and teamwork. Client interaction and communication are key aspects in the advertising sector. Establishing steady communication channels with clients allows agencies to understand their needs, preferences, and feedback throughout the campaign development process. This ensures alignment with client objectives and expectations, fostering strong and productive client relationships (Khalid & Zubair, 2014). The nature of work in the advertising industry is characterized by a high degree of workload and a rapidly changing environment (Ensor et al., 2001), which can pose challenges for stress and employee well-being. In the advertising industry, employees need to be flexible and adaptable. Agencies need to respond quickly to shifts in market trends and consumer behavior (Lynch, 2019). Working in advertising agencies means navigating a fast-paced environment characterized by deadlines and rapid turnaround times. Employees must effectively manage deadlines and produce creative work on time.
The nature of work in the advertising industry is characterized by project-based structures, client-driven deadlines, and high creative demands (Ensor et al., 2001). These conditions often create a dynamic and competitive work environment in which employees must continuously generate innovative ideas under time pressure while meeting client expectations. The strong emphasis on creativity, combined with frequent client feedback and the need to tailor campaigns to rapidly changing consumer trends, can contribute to elevated stress levels and affect employee well-being (Lynch, 2019; Deuze, 2007). Employees in advertising therefore need to be highly adaptable and resilient, balancing creative performance with strategic communication and client management. This combination of creative intensity, performance pressure, and continuous client interaction distinguishes advertising work from many other professional environments and underscores the importance of interventions that support employee well-being and sustainable creativity. As a result, employees must manage their time effectively and maintain creative output under pressure—challenges that are also common in other fast-paced professional environments.
Online delivery of mindfulness-based interventions has been shown to be effective and can provide greater flexibility and accessibility for participants. They can lead to similar outcomes as in-person MBIs (Aikens et al., 2014; Vonderlin et al., 2020), making them a potential alternative for reaching a wider audience and increasing accessibility. In addition, OMBIs can be more cost-effective and convenient, particularly for hard-to-reach but digitally accessible populations (Spijkerman et al., 2016).
Several studies (e.g., Jayawardene et al., 2017; Kemper, 2017; Krusche et al., 2013) have highlighted the positive impact of OMBIs on employees. For example, Ogino et al. (2024) demonstrated that OMBIs can effectively reduce stress and enhance mindfulness, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, in diverse working populations, including office workers, educators, and medical welfare workers. This underscores the potential of OMBIs to alleviate stress, which is closely linked to psychological strain.
Psychological strain serves as an indicator of perceived stress and is described by Mohr et al. (2005) as a state of mental impairment resulting from a perceived discrepancy between goals and outcomes. It is characterized by an inability to detach from work (cognitive irritation) and emotionally irritable reactions (emotional irritation). Unlike mental disorders, psychological strain is a broadly defined construct encompassing psychophysical and behavioral symptoms that are not specific to a particular condition. Burnout research provides additional insight into this concept. Maslach and Leiter (2016) describe burnout as a result of chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed, leading to emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced professional effectiveness. Similarly, the World Health Organization (2019) defines burnout as an occupational phenomenon rather than a medical disorder. These perspectives highlight that stress reactions are normal and adaptive when stressors remain unresolved, but they can become problematic when recovery or coping resources are insufficient over time.
To address these challenges, mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have been increasingly used to help employees manage stress more effectively. However, their impact depends not only on program design but also on how consistently participants engage with the training. A key prerequisite for the effectiveness of OMBIs is adherence. Adherence refers to the extent to which participants actively engage with and complete an intervention as intended. In the context of OMBIs, regular mindfulness practice is essential for developing mindfulness skills, which are linked to improved mental health outcomes (Spijkerman et al., 2016). However, low adherence rates are frequently reported in online interventions, particularly in self-guided formats (Beatty & Binnion, 2016). Studies suggest that adherence tends to be higher in programs that include live delivery, group participation, or personal guidance—conditions that allow for interaction and social support comparable to in-person interventions. These findings indicate that the mode of delivery plays a crucial role in maintaining participant engagement and overall program effectiveness.
Against this background, the present research pursued two primary objectives. First, it aimed to examine the effectiveness of an online mindfulness-based intervention (OMBI) in reducing psychological strain—specifically cognitive irritation and emotional irritation—decreasing perceived stress, and enhancing dispositional mindfulness among employees in the advertising industry. Second, it sought to explore factors influencing adherence to the intervention by identifying individual, organizational, and training-specific determinants.
To address these objectives, a mixed-methods design was employed, combining a pre–post quasi-experimental study with qualitative interviews conducted within a German advertising agency. Based on prior research on mindfulness-based interventions, it was hypothesized that participation in the OMBI would reduce cognitive irritation (Hypothesis 1) and emotional irritation (Hypothesis 2), decrease perceived stress (Hypothesis 3), and increase dispositional mindfulness (Hypothesis 4) over time.
To test the aforementioned hypotheses and to gain comprehensive insights into the effectiveness and adherence factors of an online mindfulness-based intervention in the advertising industry, we implemented an 8-week OMBI program that contains elements of MBSR at a German advertising agency. To evaluate the program, we conducted two longitudinal studies: a pre-post quasi-experimental design (Study 1) to explore the effectiveness of the MBI, and a qualitative approach with two times of measurement (Study 2) to identify potential facilitators and barriers to the MBI's adherence. The initial data collection phase for both studies occurred one week before the OMBI began (t1), while the second phase concluded one week after its completion (t2).
Study 1
Method
Participants and Procedures
In Study 1, a pre-post quasi-experimental design was applied to assess the effectiveness of an online Mindfulness-Based Intervention in the workplace. At t1, our initial sample comprised 78 employees from diverse departments and company locations within the selected advertising agency, including individuals from different hierarchical levels and job functions. The participants demonstrated varying levels of experience in mindfulness practices. The study and the OMBI training were introduced during an online information session. Subsequently, all employees were informed about the study and training via email. A requirement for participation was to have a mobile device and stable internet access, which applied to all employees. To ensure the integrity of our design, participants were required to complete the questionnaire at both time points (t1 and t2), reducing our sample to those who fulfilled this criterion.
The questionnaires were distributed to both OMBI participants and employees who did not intend to participate, resulting in a final sample of 38 employees. The substantial reduction in the sample size from 78 to 38 can be attributed to two main factors: first, a lack of motivation among some participants to complete the questionnaire at t2, and second, errors in entering the identification codes by participants, which made it impossible to match their data from t1 and t2. Of the full sample of 38, 21 employees engaged in the MBI intervention, whereas a control group of 17 employees did not participate in the MBI. The decision to participate in the training was entirely voluntary for the employees. Although this self-selection may impact the results and introduces selection bias, it mirrors real-world conditions where participation in such interventions is generally voluntary. All participants provided informed consent prior to participation. In accordance with institutional and national research guidelines, formal approval from an ethics committee was not required for this type of non-clinical organizational study. Nonetheless, the research was conducted in line with the ethical standards. Participation was voluntary, and all data were collected and analyzed anonymously.
Another limitation concerns participant attrition and data loss between the two measurement points. Despite repeated reminders and clear instructions regarding the completion of the questionnaires, some participants did not complete the second survey or entered incorrect identification codes, which prevented data matching. As participation was entirely voluntary and conducted without incentives or managerial pressure, these dropouts reflect realistic conditions in applied workplace research. While this reduced the final sample size, the open and non-incentivized study design ensured transparency and ecological validity, representing how such interventions are typically implemented in real organizational contexts.
The mean age of OMBI participants was M = 37.81 years (SD = 10.96), while for non-participants it was M = 40.59 years (SD = 10.28). In both samples, the proportion of female study participants was higher. Among the OMBI participants, 38% were male and 62% were female. In comparison, among the non-participants, 29% were male and 71% were female. Additionally, participants were asked whether they had a leadership role. In both samples, the proportion of participants without a leadership role was higher, with 67% of OMBI participants and 59% of non-participants not holding a leadership function.
Each OMBI session incorporated elements of the structured Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Sessions commenced with a journaling session combined with a self-reflection task, followed by a 10–15 min breath meditation. The mindfulness exercises covered different types of practices described in the Mindfulness Map by Levit-Binnun et al. (2021). Participants practiced focusing attention on present-moment bodily and sensory experiences (MG1), developing a non-judgmental and accepting attitude toward thoughts and emotions (MG2), and sometimes cultivating positive and compassionate attitudes toward themselves and others (MG3). Although more advanced reflective practices (MG4) were not a main focus, the journaling tasks helped participants notice their own thinking and emotional patterns, which supported a deeper understanding of their experiences. Each session concluded with a brief "take-away task," encouraging OMBI participants to practice mindfulness meditation and other exercises in their daily routine between sessions. The OMBI sessions were conducted via video conferencing software and facilitated by an instructor trained in the Search Inside Yourself (SIYLI) mindfulness program. The instructor is a work and organizational psychologist with professional experience delivering mindfulness workshops and seminars for companies such as Nespresso and Kienbaum. Each session was recorded and made available to employees through a video platform. This allowed OMBI participants to access the recording at a later time if they were unable to attend.
Measures
All measures were administered both before and after the OMBI training to assess changes over time. To ensure the reliability and accuracy of responses, the items within each scale were randomized, and attention checks (e.g. “The year has 13 months”) were included.
Our questionnaires included the German version of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) (Michalak et al., 2011) to assess dispositional mindfulness through self-report measures. The MAAS consists of 15 self-referential statements, such as "I find it difficult to stay focused on what’s happening in the present." Participants responded to these statements using a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from "almost always" (1) to "almost never" (6). Internal consistency of the MAAS in our sample was high, with Cronbach’s α = 0.89 and McDonald’s ω = 0.88. The items of the scale are reverse-coded, meaning that a low score reflects a high mindfulness.
The Irritation Scale assesses individuals' experiences of irritation, positioned between mental fatigue and mental illness (Mohr et al., 2005). The scale was constructed based on the transactional stress model proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) and encompasses two facets: Cognitive Irritation and Emotional Irritation. Participants respond to queries reflecting challenges in decompressing after work, persistent contemplation of work-related difficulties at home, and responsive behaviors like irritability. The scale comprises 8 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). Cognitive Irritation is assessed through 3 items (e.g., "I find it difficult to unwind after work"), while Emotional Irritation is measured with 5 items (e.g., "I react irritably, even though I don't want to"). Internal consistency for Cognitive Irritation was Cronbach’s α = 0.81 and McDonald’s ω = 0.81; for Emotional Irritation, Cronbach’s α = 0.87 and McDonald’s ω = 0.87.
As an indicator for perceived stress, the standardized German version of the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10; Cohen et al., 1983; Klein et al., 2016) was used. Participants were tasked with indicating the extent to which they perceived situations as unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overwhelming over the past month. Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from (1) never to (5) very often. For instance, participants were asked, “In the last month, how often have you been angered because of things that were outside of your control?” Internal consistency for the PSS was Cronbach’s α = 0.91 and McDonald’s ω = 0.91.
Basic demographics were collected, including age, gender, leadership status, highest educational level, previous experience in mindfulness practice, mobile work and working hours.
Data Analyses
Descriptive statistics were employed to provide a comprehensive summary of participants' demographic characteristics at both t1 and t2. The normality of the data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test for both t1 and t2 assessments. Subsequently, the data were matched based on participant codes, resulting in a final sample of n = 21 in the intervention group and n = 17 in the control group. The groups exhibited similar characteristics. The intervention group included 12 female and 8 male participants, one did not mention a gender. The average age in this group was about 38.60 years, most 15 participants have at least a bachelor’s degree and 7 mention having a position that involves leadership. The control group consisted of 12 female and 5 male participants. The average age is about 40.60 years, 14 participants have a bachelor’s degree or higher education and 7 participants mention having a position that involves leadership. The comparison between the groups did not suggest any systematic distortions.
To assess statistical significance, two-tailed paired samples t-tests were conducted, examining the changes within each group over time. This analytical approach allowed for a detailed exploration of any observed differences between t1 and t2, providing valuable insights into the impact of the intervention compared to the control group.
Results
Effectiveness of OMBI
Regarding the intervention group (OMBI participants), the analysis revealed a significant decrease in cognitive irritation scores from t1 (M = 5.43, SD = 1.19) to t2 (M = 4.73, SD = 1.23), t(20) = 3.34, p < 0.01, supporting Hypothesis 1. No significant difference was found in emotional irritation scores between t1 (M = 3.91, SD = 1.04) and t2 (M = 3.56, SD = 1.06), t(20) = 1.52, p = 0.14, indicating that Hypothesis 2 was not supported. For Hypothesis 3, a significant decrease in perceived stress was observed from t1 (M = 3.23, SD = 0.70) to t2 (M = 2.78, SD = 0.76), t(20) = 3.54, p < 0.01, thus supporting Hypothesis 3. Regarding Hypothesis 4, the analysis revealed a significant increase in dispositional mindfulness from t1 (M = 3.33, SD = 0.69) to t2 (M = 2.93, SD = 0.51), t(20) = 3.19, p = 0.01, supporting Hypothesis 4.
Likewise, in the control group, a paired-samples t-test was conducted to examine changes in mindfulness scores from time point t1 to t2. The results indicated a non-significant difference, t(16) = −1.70, p = 0.11. The mean mindfulness score at t1 was M = 3.30 (SD = 0.76), which slightly increased to M = 3.46 (SD = 0.98) at t2. For cognitive irritation, a paired-samples t-test revealed no significant difference between t1 and t2, t(16) = 0.20, p = 0.85. The mean cognitive irritation score at t1 was M = 4.86 (SD = 1.45), and at t2 it was M = 4.80 (SD = 1.36). Similarly, the analysis for emotional irritation showed a non-significant difference between t1 and t2, t(16) = −1.28, p = 0.22. The mean emotional irritation score at t1 was M = 3.49 (SD = 1.24), and at t2 it was M = 3.84 (SD = 1.57). The paired-samples t-test for perceived stress revealed no significant change from t1 to t2, t(16) = 0.28, p = 0.78. The mean perceived stress score at t1 was M = 3.08 (SD = 0.67), and at t2 it was M = 3.02 (SD = 0.70) Table 1.
Table 1
Changes in MAAS, KI, EI, and PS scores in the intervention and control group
Measure
Group
Mean
SD
t
df
p
Cohen's d
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
MAAS
Intervention Group
3.33
2.93
0.69
0.51
3.19
20
0.01
0.70
Control Group
3.30
3.46
0.76
0.98
−1.70
16
0.11
−0.41
KI
Intervention Group
5.43
4.73
1.19
1.23
3.34
20
< 0.01
0.73
Control Group
4.86
4.80
1.45
1.36
0.20
16
0.85
0.05
CI
Intervention Group
3.91
3.56
1.04
1.06
1.52
20
0.14
0.33
Control Group
3.49
3.84
1.24
1.57
−1.28
16
0.22
−0.31
PS
Intervention Group
3.23
2.78
0.70
0.76
3.54
20
< 0.01
0.77
Control Group
3.08
3.02
0.67
0.70
0.28
16
0.78
0.07
MAAS Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, CI Cognitive Irritation, EI Emotional Irritation, PS Perceived Stress
Discussion
The findings from Study 1 suggest that OMBIs have a notable impact on certain psychological outcomes, particularly mindfulness, cognitive irritation, and perceived stress. Specifically, OMBI participants in the intervention group demonstrated a significant reduction in mindfulness scores, cognitive irritation, and perceived stress from pre- to post-intervention. This indicates that the training had a positive effect on reducing some aspects of mental strain, which aligns with existing literature on mindfulness interventions (Vonderlin et al., 2020). However, emotional irritation did not show a significant change, suggesting that mindfulness training may not equally impact all dimensions of emotional experience. One possible explanation is that due to increased mindfulness, OMBI participants became more aware of their emotions—including negative ones—resulting in this measure not significantly decreasing. Similar negative effects have been observed by Britton (2019), who demonstrated that excessive self-observation under certain conditions can cause acute stress.
In their literature review, Johnson et al. (2020) found that mindfulness training fosters a sense of community, strengthens team cohesion, enhances social support, and boosts team productivity. However, we did not observe this spillover effect in the control group, which did not participate in the OMBI. This suggests that the intervention's benefits did not extend to non-participants within the same organizational context. This finding underscores the importance of involving all employees in such programs to enhance overall organizational well-being. Organizations aiming to cultivate a mindful environment should consider strategies to ensure higher participation rates and inclusivity in mindfulness programs to maximize their impact. Future research could explore effective strategies to increase participation rates in mindfulness programs and identify potential barriers that prevent employees from engaging. In this context, it would be useful to evaluate whether voluntary versus mandatory attendance at an initial informational session positively influences participation behavior.
Study 2
Method
Participants and Procedures
In Study 2, a qualitative approach involving semi-structured interviews with 19 employees both before and after the eight-week MBI program was conducted. Interviewees were invited to volunteer for interviews through email invitations and announcements made during the online information session. The aim was to create a sample that included individuals who planned to participate in the OMBI training, those who did not, and those who were uncertain. It was consistently emphasized that both participation and non-participation in the training, whether planned or actual, qualified individuals for an interview.
Of the 19 interviews conducted, one was excluded because a full interview could not be scheduled with the interviewee. However, since the coding process had already commenced, the original numbering and designations of the interviews were retained to avoid confusion.
Given the specific goals of the study, a purposive sampling strategy was applied. This approach allowed us to intentionally select interviewees based on their relevance to the research objectives, ensuring that we captured diverse perspectives related to the OMBI training experience. By focusing on individuals with varying levels of engagement with the training, we aimed to gain deeper insights into interviewees' perceptions of the program, their experiences of mindfulness practice, and any changes they may have noticed in work-related outcomes such as stress, productivity, and communication with colleagues. The interviews were conducted by two of the authors and audio-recorded for later transcription and analysis. The sample consisted of 11 female and 7 male interviewees, with an average age of 41 years. Among the participants, 15 had participated in the OMBI training, while three had not. One interviewee did not attend the scheduled interview, and as a result, no demographic information could be collected for this individual. An overview of the sample characteristics is provided in Table 2.
Table 2
Sample characteristics study 2 (n = 19)
Interview
Age
Gender
OMBI Participant
I1
60
w
Yes
I2
23
m
Yes
I3
49
w
Yes
I4
34
w
Yes
I5
51
m
Yes
I6
42
m
Yes
I7
53
m
No
I8
44
m
Yes
I9
29
w
Yes
I10
N/A
N/A
N/A
I11
29
m
Yes
I12
46
w
Yes
I13
54
w
Yes
I14
40
w
No
I15
48
w
Yes
I16
31
w
Yes
I17
34
w
Yes
I18
32
w
No
I19
47
m
Yes
Measures
To identify the factors influencing adherence to online mindfulness-based interventions, we conducted comprehensive interviews with participants, non-participants, and individuals who were uncertain at various stages. These included: (1) before the training, with those intending to participate and (2) those intending not to participate or who were uncertain, as well as (3) after the training, with OMBI participants and (4) non-participants. This led to the creation of four distinct semi-structured interview guidelines, each comprising eight to ten questions. These inquiries focused on both hindering and facilitating factors for engagement in online mindfulness-based interventions, exploring perspectives from both the pre-intervention (t1) phase (e.g., "What circumstances would lead to your discontinuation of mindfulness training?") and the post-intervention (t2) phase (e.g., "What motivated you to consistently participate in the training sessions?"). Our investigation specifically targeted insights from OMBI participants and non-participants.
Furthermore, we delved into potential impacts of the training on the organization, posing questions such as "How have you observed any potential changes at work in the past few weeks?" or "The mindfulness training sessions have concluded. To what extent have you gained insights or experiences from the training sessions?" This line of inquiry aimed to capture nuanced reflections from the interviewees. To ensure a balanced perspective, we also asked about potential challenges and difficulties, for example: "What aspects of the mindfulness training did you find difficult or less helpful?" or "What did you miss in the training sessions?" In our effort to scrutinize the unique challenges posed by digital training, we specifically inquired about the distinctive aspects of digital interventions (e.g., "To what extent would you have participated in the mindfulness training if it had not taken place digitally?"). To understand the factors that hinder or facilitate the integration of OMBIs in organizations, it was essential to explore the working conditions and social structure of the target agency. Therefore, we also included questions about daily life in the advertising agency (e.g., "Could you please describe what a typical day looks like for you?").
Throughout the interviews, the interviewer asked for more details to elicit more detailed responses from interviewees. Later, the interview recordings were transcribed and checked for accuracy by the interviewers.
Data Analyses
In Study 2, the data obtained from interviews with OMBI participants and non-participants were analyzed using the qualitative approach developed by Gioia et al. (2013). This method facilitates a comprehensive and flexible examination of themes and patterns emerging from qualitative data.
The first phase of the analysis involved becoming familiar with the interview data. Transcripts were carefully read and re-read to gain an overall understanding of the responses and to identify recurring first-order concepts. These initial concepts were derived directly from the explicit content of the interviewees' statements about barriers, facilitators, and perceived impacts of online mindfulness training. Following this, second-order themes were developed from these first-order concepts. This involved grouping similar concepts into broader categories to capture more abstract patterns within the data. Within each of these overarching categories, aggregate dimensions were created to further refine and structure the data into more granular and coherent themes. The coding process was iterative, involving continuous refinement and modification of these dimensions as new patterns and themes emerged. This iterative approach allowed for a dynamic and responsive analysis of the evolving dataset.
To ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings, the results were reviewed with HR and health experts from the agency. Their feedback was crucial in validating the identified themes and ensuring that they accurately reflected real-world experiences and expert insights. The Gioia methodology not only categorizes data but also assigns structure to it and can even lead to theory development. An intermediate step in theory formation is the development of a theoretical model that maps a structure and can be further developed in future research. Therefore, it aimed to summarize the results in a model.
Results
Adherence factors of OMBI in an Advertising Agency
Study 2 qualitatively explores the factors influencing adherence to OMBIs. We conducted our analysis from different angles, firstly from a temporal perspective and secondly from the perspective of contextual factors. Therefore, there are two basic types of dimensions that are not mutually exclusive, but rather develop the character of a matrix that we have brought together into a model of adherence to OMBIs. The dimensions from a temporal perspective are Pre-Entry, First-Training, and Maintenance Phases. The contextual dimensions are individual, organizational, and training-specific factors. These are first presented separately from each other to explain the determining mechanisms behind them and then presented together in the model.
In addition, our analysis has provided insights based on data from the advertising industry, which are presented first. Interviews conducted within an advertising agency revealed how the agency’s culture—characterized by high workloads and client-driven demands—interacts with adherence factors. While such conditions are not unique to the advertising industry, this context serves as an illustrative example of high-pressure work environments where online mindfulness programs may be particularly relevant.
Organizational and Cultural Characteristics of the Advertising Agency
The data provide insights into how work in the advertising agency is organized, what cultures exist, and how employees’ daily work experiences change over time. Although we acknowledge that our findings cannot be generalized to the advertising industry as a whole, it is reasonable to suggest that similar dynamics may be present in other high-pressure and fast-paced industries. Therefore, while the results are grounded in one organizational context, they may offer relevant implications for comparable work environments.
The agency examined in this study consists of different locations, departments and types of tasks. For instance, members of the media department reported having jobs with a high variety of tasks, whereas others reported continuous video calls throughout the day. One notable characteristic highlighted in the interviews was the consistently high workload, where actual working hours often exceeded contractual terms. As one participant put it: “The workload in the agency is always high. So, that's the first thing someone says who has never worked in an agency before” (I14). Long working days were described as common (I14).
Hybrid work models that combine working from home and in the office were common, although the extent of their use varied between departments and teams. Employees in open-plan offices mentioned that noise often caused stress (I14), and some reported that they sometimes had to continue working during online meetings to keep up with their tasks (I8).
These working conditions—high workloads, frequent communication, and tight deadlines—are not unique to the advertising industry. They are also found in other demanding, project-oriented fields such as insurance, healthcare, journalism, and law. Therefore, the advertising agency in this study can be seen as a representative example for understanding how mindfulness-based interventions may work in dynamic and high-pressure work environments more generally.
Customer-centricity is a key driving force in advertising, leading to a high degree of external control. Client demands and preferences heavily influence the agency's direction, requiring a responsive and adaptive approach to meet evolving expectations. This is especially highlighted by I5's statement: "When clients make demands or become active, it can get extremely hectic. In such moments, priorities often need to be changed suddenly, and requests start pouring in from all directions."
It also illustrates that the work environment is characterized by low predictability, with a substantial amount of ad-hoc tasks and challenges. This fluidity necessitates a quick-thinking and adaptable approach, requiring team members to be agile in response to shifting priorities and unexpected demands. In this dynamic setting, a high degree of flexibility is essential. Team members must be prepared to pivot swiftly, embracing change and demonstrating resilience in the face of evolving client needs and industry trends. In other organizational sectors it is necessary to schedule work tasks in order to get them managed (I8, I9). The nature of tasks within an advertising agency is characterized by a unique blend of repetition and variety and “there are topics that keep coming up repeatedly and things that are completely new” (I16). Employees engage in both routine responsibilities and creatively stimulating projects, creating a dynamic work environment that fosters innovation and skill development. Some interviewees reported being continuously in meetings, sometimes people were not able to take either a toilet break or a lunch break throughout the entire day (I4, I12). Some report to have no control over their working day (I13). The high load of information employees encounter (I14) or spontaneous deadlines (I13) are considered as strain for some employees. On the other hand, the variation of tasks (I3, I8) and the autonomy (I1, I5) which goes along with the job are described as positive resources of the job.
The main culture can be described as ‘work hard, play hard’. Interviewees report that it’s not unusual to stay in the office after work and get some drinks or go out with the colleagues (I14). Further, a sense of community exists. Successes are celebrated together, whereas losses can significantly lower morale. People leaving the organization also have huge impact on the overall mood. In addition to the main culture, several subcultures exist. Interviewees state that some locations have a culture less supportive of remote work (I12), some claim that since the COVID-19 pandemic the sense of togetherness decreased (I19). Many participants also described a strong meeting culture, which shows how important communication and teamwork are in daily work. However, these conditions—frequent meetings or the impact of staff turnover—are not specific to advertising. They can also be found in other demanding and collaborative work environments such as IT, healthcare, and academia.
Some interviewees mention that they feel connected to their work in their free time (I9), perceive a lack of boundaries between work and free time or use the metaphor of working in a “hamster wheel” (I14). Some interviewees stated that they felt stressed (I5, I8, I15). Employees partly lose their sense of time and either have the feeling “that two weeks feel like half a year” (I14) or that “the day is running through” (I12). In addition, the perception of stress changes with age. Some interviewees stated that, for example, the lack of a family and the many company parties are more stressful for them today than it was when they were younger. Interviewees say that they cannot reflect their work as “they have to perform” (I15). Depending on the working tasks it was also mentioned that people do not feel stressed at all (I6).
The mood within the agency is closely tied to the outcomes of pitches, with successes boosting morale and failures prompting reevaluation and adaptation. These distinctive attributes of the advertising agency not only define its work environment but also shape how individuals experience and engage with Online Mindfulness-Based Interventions.
Temporal dimensions
The Pre-Entry Phase refers to the period before the start of the OMBI and includes factors that influence employees’ decisions about whether to participate. This phase is shaped by individual experiences, organizational influences, and training-specific characteristics. The dimension consists of factors we identified as relevant to whether employees participate in the training at all. This phase is particularly characterized by ideas about the training and prejudices. Expectations from colleagues or the organization can also influence the willingness to participate. For example, the role expectations placed on a person can prevent them from participating. There is also a lot of room for ideas about the training content. Everything that is not communicated or not communicated in the right way offers the opportunity to form ideas and prejudices about the content. This can either stimulate the willingness to participate or minimize it.
The First-Training Phase covers the initial sessions of the OMBI, where participants form their first impressions of the program. Early experiences in this phase are often important for continued participation, as individuals compare their expectations with the actual training content and format. The dimension consists of factors from the first training session that turned out to be a critical point for sustained willingness to participate. As in other areas of life, the first impression is decisive for the general attitude towards training. We assume that a comparison of one's own expectations with reality takes place and that, in particular, individuals who have fixed ideas and are not prepared to deviate from them decide whether or not they will continue to take part in the training. OMBI participants who have not yet had any fixed ideas decide in this phase whether or not they fundamentally like the content.
The Maintenance Phase refers to the later stages of the program, after the initial introduction. This phase is shaped by factors that influence the long-term willingness to participate in the training. As participation in training involves effort and the investment of resources, we assume that there is a constant debate about costs and benefits. If OMBI participants feel that their efforts are worthwhile, their willingness to continue participating in the training increases. If the OMBI participants feel that they can invest their time more effectively, there is a greater chance that they will drop out of the training.
Individual Factors
Prior experiences with mindfulness practices were frequently mentioned as a motivator. Interviewees indicated that activities like yoga (I5, I15, I17), meditation (I5), walking (I1, I10), or listening to music (I1, I14) contributed to their confidence in joining the training. One interviewee noted, “I already practice yoga, and I thought this training would complement what I’m already doing” (I5). Conversely, interviewees without prior exposure to mindfulness (I2, I6, I8) cited curiosity as their primary motivator. For example, one interviewee stated, “I’ve never done this before, but it sounded interesting” (I6).
Critical life experiences were another significant driver. Interviewees described how events like the loss of a loved one or personal health crises introduced them to mindfulness, either through therapy or personal exploration (I2, I6, I10, I12, I15). One individual shared, “After losing someone close, mindfulness became a way of coping” (I12). Additionally, observing others’ struggles also motivated some OMBI participants, as highlighted by one interviewee: “My decision was influenced by the challenges faced by someone close to me” (I16).
Personal motivational reasons fell into two categories we named: salutogenic and pathogenic motivation. Salutogenic motivation, such as developing resilience or improving self-awareness, was often cited. For example, one participant explained, “I wanted to develop resilience and learn how to handle stress better” (I7). Pathogenic motivations included alleviating stress, improving sleep quality, or managing daily challenges (I10, I15). As one interviewee described, “I’m in a bit of a stressful situation at the moment, and I think that would do me a lot of good right now” (I2).
Online affinity shaped attitudes toward participation. While some OMBI participants appreciated the convenience of online sessions and reduced travel times (I10), others faced challenges such as distractions, lack of team atmosphere, or screen fatigue (I9, I10, I14).
Interviewees’ adaptability to online formats was pivotal. Those familiar with digital tools adapted quickly and valued the convenience of the format. One interviewee stated, “I’m used to online meetings, so transitioning to this format was easy” (I1). However, some OMBI participants struggled with maintaining focus due to distractions like caregiving responsibilities or other personal demands (I7). As one individual explained, “I wanted to focus, but I kept getting interrupted by family duties” (I7).
Social expectations also influenced participation. Leadership played a pivotal role, with managers often encouraging or endorsing the program (I4, I9, I19). One participant noted, “When my boss recommended the training, it made me feel like it was something worth trying” (I4). However, societal norms and team dynamics could discourage participation, particularly among younger, male employees. One interviewee observed, “The younger and more male our team is, the less they see this as valuable” (I12). The stigma associated with seeking help was also noted, as one participant admitted, “I was hesitant because mindfulness felt like admitting weakness” (I8).
Initial impressions of the training environment, particularly the trainer’s approach, significantly impacted engagement. OMBI participants appreciated trainers who created a welcoming and supportive atmosphere. One interviewee shared, “The trainer made the session approachable and easy to follow” (I2).
OMBI participants’ experiences of tangible benefits or disadvantages influenced their adherence. Participants who experienced benefits, such as improved focus, reduced stress, or a sense of mental clarity, were more likely to continue. One interviewee shared, “Each session left me feeling more balanced—it kept me coming back” (I5). However, missing sessions created psychological barriers, as one participant admitted, “Skipping one session made it harder to rejoin” (I6).
Organizational Factors
Leadership was a critical influence in this phase. Managers often acted as role models, encouraging employees to participate and providing flexibility for attendance (I4, I9, I19). One interviewee shared, “Our manager ensures we can attend without worrying about work tasks being neglected” (I9).
The organizational culture also played a significant role. Teams that already incorporated mindfulness practices into their routines created a supportive environment for participation (I15). For example, one participant noted, “Including mindfulness exercises in our team meetings motivated me to join the training” (I15).
Scheduling sessions during work hours reduced conflicts and emphasized the program’s value. One participant remarked, “Because it was part of my workday, I felt justified in participating” (I4). Leadership involvement further reinforced the program’s importance, as noted by one interviewee: “Seeing my manager attend the sessions motivated me to take it seriously” (I5).
Social support from leaders and peers, along with integrating mindfulness practices into daily routines, helped sustain long-term commitment. One interviewee explained, “When my team discussed the training during meetings, it reminded me to keep going.” (I8).
Training-Specific Factors
Accessibility and flexibility emerged as key determinants. OMBI participants appreciated features like attending sessions from any location (I1, I2, I6), accessing recordings (I5, I10), and accommodating scheduling options (I10). One interviewee emphasized, “The flexibility to watch recordings if I missed a session was crucial for me” (I5).
Technical issues occasionally disrupted early sessions but were mitigated by competent trainers. One participant stated, “The trainer made me feel welcome and explained everything so clearly—it made all the difference” (I2). Session timing and group size also influenced OMBI participants’ initial impressions (I8, I10).
Dynamic content and accessibility of recordings were highly valued. OMBI participants appreciated the introduction of fresh materials to maintain relevance. One interviewee noted, “Each session offered something new, which kept me looking forward to the next one” (I3). The recorded format allowed participants to access the sessions on demand, providing greater flexibility for those with varying schedules. Delivery formats for mindfulness programs can differ — they may be (1) pre-recorded and asynchronous, (2) live online, or (3) conducted in person. While pre-recorded programs offer convenience and accessibility, live online and in-person formats enable real-time interaction and foster group dynamics. Reflecting this, some OMBI participants reported missing the interpersonal connection typically present in live group settings. One individual remarked, “I missed the group dynamics you get in in-person sessions” (I8).
Understanding Adherence in OMBI: Development of the OMBI Adherence Matrix
Based on the two perspectives, we developed a model that explains the critical phases in adherence to OMBIs. This model highlights three key phases—Pre-Entry, First-Training, and Maintenance—each influenced by individual, organizational, and training-specific factors. The model represents the relationships between the identified factors and their occurrence across temporal phases and integrates the identified phases and contextual dimensions into a matrix structure. The two-dimensional view shows that influencing factors cannot necessarily be reduced to individual phases or levels of influences but are sometimes overarching.
The model comprises three temporal phases and three contextual levels derived from the analysis. Whereas some factors can clearly be placed into a specific box, some seem to influence every phase or on the interface between organizational-individual or training specificity-individual. This shows the dynamics in the process and that factors are not static values. Further, it has to be mentioned that the factors simply represent impressions that were communicated to us during the interviews and do not capture all factors that might be relevant in practice.
Moreover, the mechanisms we reported in the analysis need more research on quantitative basis or in depth by qualitative approaches. Nevertheless, we argue that our model can help to systemize research that has to be done in the field, for which we suggest some issues that seem to be valuable for future research:
Online preference. Our analysis shows that the online affinity differs among individuals. Participants described pre-experiences, tendencies of distraction, cultural context, and existing screen time at work as factors related to their motivation to participate in the online training.
Salutogenic vs. pathogenic motivation. It was shown that the motivation to attend training is high when OMBI participants have a rather salutogenic or pathogenic character.
Leadership. It was shown that leadership plays a crucial role in the adherence behavior. The role model function of leaders can foster or hinder the attendance of a whole team or section. It is valuable to get more knowledge about the adherence behavior of leaders. Therefore, future research might focus on the question of what motivates leaders to take part in the training.
Prior Experiences. Prior experiences can influence the adherence behavior of OMBI participants. Whereas positive experiences beforehand can be a main driver in the pre-entry phase these might result in comparisons in the latter phases. More research about the comparison behavior of subjects might explain how persons build their preferences about training content.
Organizational barriers. Our results identify some organizational barriers that hinder persons to take part in a training partly or completely. For instance, how trainings are integral in the normal working time or how trainings are (not) communicated.
Moreover, our model might be used in practice by companies that plan to introduce a certain training. An analysis of the different factors and phases might raise the chance that training, organizational settings and the preferences of individuals match Fig. 1.
Study 2 explored the organizational and cultural characteristics of the advertising agency, focusing on the high workloads, unpredictable client demands, and the "work hard, play hard" culture. These findings align with the work of Guang et al. (2019), who highlight the cultural and symbolic dimensions of advertising. Their research explained how employees in the advertising industry connect their sense of achievement and identity to the success or failure of advertising campaigns. The celebrations of success and the collective impact of setbacks reflect the principles of Affective Events Theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), which suggests that workplace events strongly influence emotions, satisfaction, and performance.
However, similar dynamics can also be found in other professional contexts where work products are closely tied to individual and team identity—such as in information technology, marketing, or communications—where high workloads, unpredictable client demands, and distinct subcultures shape how employees experience their work. In this sense, the advertising industry serves as a representative example of creative and project-based organizational cultures rather than a uniquely exceptional case.
Our study also connects with the ideas of Guang et al. (2019) about subcultures within advertising agencies. We found that different departments or teams often develop their own distinct cultures based on their roles, which mirrors how Guang and colleagues describe the symbolic differences in roles within advertising. Employees in creative roles tend to feel more engaged with their work, while those in operational roles struggle with information overload and tight deadlines. This difference in work experience aligns with the symbolic role of advertising as described by Guang and colleagues. The "work hard, play hard" culture also plays a significant role in how employees balance work and personal life. This is closely related to Boundary Theory (Ashforth et al., 2000), which discusses how blurring the lines between work and personal life can cause stress. In our study, employees frequently mentioned feeling connected to their work even during their free time, leading to role conflict and burnout. The shift to hybrid work also complicates the ability to maintain clear boundaries between work and home life, which both our study and Boundary Theory highlight. While Guang et al. (2019) focus more on the symbolic aspects of advertising work, our study emphasizes practical challenges like excessive meetings, information overload, and environmental stressors such as noise in open-plan offices. Additionally, our findings highlight how post–COVID-19 changes, such as increased remote work, have affected agency culture and dynamics. However, our study adds a deeper understanding by addressing the operational challenges that employees face and the need for better strategies to manage both the cultural and practical demands of working in advertising.
The OMBI Adherence Matrix (OAM), which identifies the Pre-Entry, First-Training, and Maintenance phases, provides a valuable framework for understanding how individual, organizational, and training-specific factors interact to influence participation in Online Mindfulness-Based Interventions. This model helps contextualize the findings of Study 2, which identified several important factors shaping employee engagement with OMBIs. These factors include individual, organizational, and training-specific dimensions and play a role across the Pre-Entry, First-Training, and Maintenance phases. Participants’ motivations to join mindfulness training can be categorized into salutogenic and pathogenic reasons. Salutogenic motivations focus on personal growth and resilience, while pathogenic motivations address immediate stressors or health concerns. These findings align closely with Antonovsky's salutogenic model (1987), which explores how individuals develop resources to enhance well-being.
Research suggests that a strong Sense of Coherence (SOC) is closely associated with the integration of mindfulness practices into daily life. Individuals with a high SOC are better equipped to manage stress and adopt mindfulness as a long-term strategy for maintaining health. For instance, Langeland et al. (2007) developed an intervention program aimed at strengthening SOC, demonstrating that such initiatives can significantly improve participants’ health and well-being. Additionally, Gimpel and colleagues (2014) found that a comprehensive mind–body medicine program significantly enhanced SOC, mindfulness, and quality of life among participants. This highlights the interplay between mindfulness practice and a strengthened SOC, underlining its importance as a resource for health and resilience. Leadership also plays a crucial role in encouraging participation in mindfulness programs. Supportive workplace environments and active engagement by leaders have been shown to increase employee motivation to participate and integrate such practices into their routines. This, in turn, can contribute to strengthening their SOC and improving stress management. In conclusion, the promotion of a strong Sense of Coherence and the support of leadership are pivotal for the successful implementation of mindfulness programs. When leaders actively supported and even participated in the training themselves, it sent a strong message to employees that the program was valued and worth their time. This finding aligns with research by Passey and colleagues (2018), which highlights the pivotal role of leadership in fostering engagement with wellness programs. Passey and colleagues demonstrated that factors such as senior leadership endorsement, and managers' attitudes and beliefs about wellness programs significantly influence employee participation. In the context of mindfulness-based interventions, these insights suggest that leaders who visibly prioritize and endorse such training can create a supportive environment that motivates employees to engage and persist in these programs. Also, making it easier for employees to attend during work hours and reminding them regularly helped to remove some barriers, especially in busy work environments like advertising, where heavy workloads are often a problem (I10, I12). The culture within the organization also played a role. Teams that already included mindfulness in their routines created a positive atmosphere, which motivated people to join. However, the changes in work culture after COVID-19, like hybrid working models, made it harder for teams to stay connected, which highlights the need to work on team cohesion in these new setups (Hardwig, 2024). The online format of the training had both advantages and disadvantages. Some OMBI participants liked the flexibility of being able to attend from anywhere or watch recordings if they missed a session. But others struggled with things like feeling tired from too much screen time, distractions, or the lack of social connection during the sessions. These challenges match what Bailenson (2021) described as digital fatigue, where too much screen use makes it harder to focus and stay motivated. The study shows that mindfulness programs need to adapt to both the culture and challenges of high-pressure workplaces like advertising.
Building on these insights, our findings align with broader adherence challenges highlighted by Beatty and Binnion (2016). Their systematic review of adherence predictors in online interventions identified critical factors such as gender, treatment expectancy, and time availability as influential in participant engagement. Similarly, our study found that individual motivations, such as personal growth and stress reduction, combined with organizational factors like leadership support and team culture, played a pivotal role in shaping adherence to OMBIs. However, our findings also extend the discussion by emphasizing unique barriers in high-pressure work environments, such as "screen fatigue" and limited social interaction, which were not explicitly addressed in Beatty and Binnion’s work. These findings suggest that while predictors of adherence are consistent across different intervention types, workplace-specific stressors and digital engagement challenges must also be considered to optimize participation and outcomes in OMBIs.
Leaders also play an important role in promoting these programs. When they lead by example and create an environment where employees feel supported, it facilitates participation. Organizations should also consider adding mindfulness practices to team routines and offering clear communication and workload management to ensure employees can fully participate.
General Discussion
Taken together, the findings indicate that online mindfulness-based interventions (OMBIs) can reduce stress-related outcomes in high-pressure environments such as advertising, while their effectiveness is closely tied to adherence. Study 1 demonstrated improvements in cognitive irritation, perceived stress, and dispositional mindfulness. Study 2 showed that participation is shaped by individual motivations, organizational support, and training-specific characteristics across different phases of engagement.
The integration of both studies highlights that effectiveness and adherence are interdependent. The OMBI Adherence Matrix (OAM) provides a structured framework for understanding how these factors interact over time and offers practical guidance for implementing digital mindfulness programs in demanding workplace contexts.
Limitations and Future Research
Although our study offers valuable insights into the digital delivery of mindfulness programs in the workplace, it is not without limitations.
The study's focus on a single advertising agency limits the generalizability of the findings to other organizational contexts. Future research should replicate these findings across a broader range of industries and organizational settings to enhance external validity. Additionally, the relatively small sample size in Study 1 restricts the generalizability of the results, suggesting that larger and more diverse samples in future studies would provide a stronger basis for broader application.
Additionally, the findings of this study should be interpreted in light of cultural context. The research was conducted within a German organizational environment, where cultural attitudes toward mental health, mindfulness, and workplace well-being may differ from those in other countries. These cultural factors can influence both the acceptance and perceived effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions. Future research should therefore examine OMBIs across diverse cultural and organizational settings to better understand how social norms, communication styles, and attitudes toward stress and mental health shape program engagement and outcomes.
Study 1 is affected by a self-selection bias. As subjects can choose which group they want to attend and treatments were communicated due to practical and ethical issues, this is a clear limitation of Study 1. However, as stated before, it represents real conditions where participants know beforehand what training is offered in a company, which makes the case useful for management practice.
The reliance on self-report measures in Study 1 introduces potential response bias and social desirability effects. To address these limitations, future research could incorporate objective measures and use mixed methods to triangulate the data, offering a more robust evaluation of the intervention's impact. In addition, no biometric or physiological data were collected to objectively validate changes in stress, mindfulness, or related outcomes. Including such measures in future studies could help verify self-reported results and provide a more comprehensive understanding of intervention effects. Our study was designed to capture short-term outcomes, assessing the effects of the OMBI immediately before and after the intervention. However, the long-term effects of OMBI on, for example, employee well-being and organizational outcomes remain unexplored. Longitudinal studies with extended follow-up periods would be instrumental in determining the sustainability of these effects over time. Despite efforts to control for confounding variables, other factors outside the scope of our study may have influenced participants' experiences and outcomes. Future research could consider additional variables such as individual differences in mindfulness levels, personality traits, and organizational culture to provide a more comprehensive understanding of intervention effects.
Our study focused on the implementation of an OMBI, assuming OMBI participants' familiarity and comfort with digital platforms, which is typically prevalent in the advertising industry. However, varying levels of technology proficiency and digital literacy among OMBI participants may have influenced engagement and adherence. Further research could explore the role of technology acceptance and usability in shaping intervention outcomes.
Moreover, the delivery format may also have influenced participants’ experiences and adherence. Watching recorded sessions later is a fundamentally different experience from participating live with others, whether online or in person. While recordings increase flexibility and accessibility, they reduce opportunities for real-time interaction and group connection—core components of mindfulness training. This difference may have influenced engagement levels and even contributed to feelings of time pressure or stress among some participants. Future research should examine how synchronous and asynchronous delivery formats affect adherence and perceived effectiveness.
The OAM, which includes the Pre-Entry, First-Training, and Maintenance Phases, helps explain how employees engage with mindfulness training. However, more research is needed to improve and expand this model as results were based on a very small sample. For example, in the Pre-Entry Phase, factors like digital skills, lifestyle habits, and personality traits could affect whether someone decides to participate. Exploring how these factors interact in high-stress environments, like advertising agencies, could help develop better strategies to encourage participation.
During the First-Training Phase, organizational support, especially from leaders, plays a key role. Future research could look at how different leadership styles and workplace cultures affect OMBI participants’ experiences during this phase. Training design is also important—technical problems and unclear content can discourage OMBI participants. Studies could explore how to make training easier to use and more engaging.
In the Maintenance Phase, keeping OMBI participants motivated over time is a major challenge, especially in digital programs. Issues like too much screen time or a lack of personal connection can reduce engagement. Future studies could test ideas like hybrid formats, reminders, or community-building activities to keep OMBI participants involved. It’s also important to understand how people balance flexibility with the need for social interaction.
Our study assumed that OMBI participants were comfortable using digital tools, which may not always be true in other industries. Future research could examine how technology skills and user-friendliness affect participation. In Study 2, the qualitative interviews provided valuable insights, but the sample size was relatively small, and most interviewees were female. Including more diverse samples in future studies could provide a fuller picture of how different groups experience mindfulness training.
Lastly, while the OAM gives a useful framework, it needs further testing and refinement. Future research could explore how specific factors, like leadership involvement in the First-Training Phase or flexibility in the Maintenance Phase, directly impact engagement. This could help improve the model and make it more applicable to other settings.
In conclusion, while this study provides a better understanding of digital mindfulness programs, addressing these limitations and conducting further research will help refine these interventions. By looking at individual, organizational, and training-specific factors across all phases, future studies can make mindfulness programs even more effective for diverse workplaces.
Declarations
Ethics
This study did not require formal approval from an Institutional Review Board/ethics committee because it involved non-clinical adult employees in an organizational setting, did not include medical interventions, and did not collect patient data. Participation was voluntary and based on informed consent. Quantitative survey data were collected and analyzed anonymously. Qualitative interview data were pseudonymized prior to transcription and analysis to protect participant confidentiality.
Informed Consent
All participants provided electronic informed consent prior to their participation in the study.
Use of Artificial Intelligence
AI was used for editing the manuscript to improve English language.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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