Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Youth and Adolescence 11/2014

01-11-2014 | Empirical Research

Mothers’ and Fathers’ Autonomy-Relevant Parenting: Longitudinal Links with Adolescents’ Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior

Auteurs: Jennifer E. Lansford, Robert D. Laird, Gregory S. Pettit, John E. Bates, Kenneth A. Dodge

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Youth and Adolescence | Uitgave 11/2014

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Abstract

The goal of this study was to advance the understanding of separate and joint effects of mothers’ and fathers’ autonomy-relevant parenting during early and middle adolescence. In a sample of 518 families, adolescents (49 % female; 83 % European American, 16 % African American, 1 % other ethnic groups) reported on their mothers’ and fathers’ psychological control and knowledge about adolescents’ whereabouts, friends, and activities at ages 13 and 16. Mothers and adolescents reported on adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing behaviors at ages 12, 14, 15, and 17. Adolescents perceived their mothers as using more psychological control and having more knowledge than their fathers, but there was moderate concordance between adolescents’ perceptions of their mothers and fathers. More parental psychological control predicted increases in boys’ and girls’ internalizing problems and girls’ externalizing problems. More parental knowledge predicted decreases in boys’ externalizing and internalizing problems. The perceived levels of behavior of mothers and fathers did not interact with one another in predicting adolescent adjustment. The results generalize across early and late adolescence and across mothers’ and adolescents’ reports of behavior problems. Autonomy-relevant mothering and fathering predict changes in behavior problems during early and late adolescence, but only autonomy-relevant fathering accounts for unique variance in adolescent behavior problems.
Literatuur
go back to reference Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL 14–18, YSR, and TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry. Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL 14–18, YSR, and TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
go back to reference Albrecht, A. K., Galambos, N. L., & Jansson, S. M. (2007). Adolescents’ internalizing and aggressive behaviors and perceptions of parents’ psychological control: A panel study examining direction of effects. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 673–684.CrossRef Albrecht, A. K., Galambos, N. L., & Jansson, S. M. (2007). Adolescents’ internalizing and aggressive behaviors and perceptions of parents’ psychological control: A panel study examining direction of effects. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 673–684.CrossRef
go back to reference Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319.PubMedCrossRef Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Barber, B. K. (Ed.). (2002). Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects children and adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Barber, B. K. (Ed.). (2002). Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects children and adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
go back to reference Barber, B. K., & Harmon, E. L. (2002). Violating the self: Parental psychological control of children and adolescents. In B. K. Barber (Ed.), Intrusive parenting (pp. 15–52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Barber, B. K., & Harmon, E. L. (2002). Violating the self: Parental psychological control of children and adolescents. In B. K. Barber (Ed.), Intrusive parenting (pp. 15–52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
go back to reference Barber, B. K., Olsen, J. E., & Shagle, S. C. (1994). Associations between parental psychological and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65, 1120–1136.PubMedCrossRef Barber, B. K., Olsen, J. E., & Shagle, S. C. (1994). Associations between parental psychological and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65, 1120–1136.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Barber, B. K., Stolz, H. E., & Olsen, J. A. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 70, 1–137.PubMed Barber, B. K., Stolz, H. E., & Olsen, J. A. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 70, 1–137.PubMed
go back to reference Baron, P., & MacGillivray, R. (1989). Depressive symptoms in adolescents as a function of perceived parental behavior. Journal of Adolescent Research, 4, 50–62.CrossRef Baron, P., & MacGillivray, R. (1989). Depressive symptoms in adolescents as a function of perceived parental behavior. Journal of Adolescent Research, 4, 50–62.CrossRef
go back to reference Bean, R. A., Barber, B. K., & Crane, D. R. (2006). Parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control among African American youth: The relationships to academic grades, delinquency, and depression. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 1335–1355.CrossRef Bean, R. A., Barber, B. K., & Crane, D. R. (2006). Parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control among African American youth: The relationships to academic grades, delinquency, and depression. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 1335–1355.CrossRef
go back to reference Belsky, J., Crnic, K., & Gable, S. (1995). The determinants of coparenting in families with toddler boys: Spousal differences and daily hassles. Child Development, 66, 629–642.PubMedCrossRef Belsky, J., Crnic, K., & Gable, S. (1995). The determinants of coparenting in families with toddler boys: Spousal differences and daily hassles. Child Development, 66, 629–642.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 115–159. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 115–159.
go back to reference Collins, W. A., Madsen, S. D., & Susman-Stillman, A. (2002). Parenting during middle childhood. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3. Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed., pp. 73–101). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Collins, W. A., Madsen, S. D., & Susman-Stillman, A. (2002). Parenting during middle childhood. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3. Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed., pp. 73–101). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
go back to reference Crouter, A. C., & Head, M. R. (2002). Parental monitoring and knowledge of children. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook on parenting: Vol. 3: Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed., pp. 461–484). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Crouter, A. C., & Head, M. R. (2002). Parental monitoring and knowledge of children. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook on parenting: Vol. 3: Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed., pp. 461–484). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
go back to reference Darling, N., Cumsille, P., Peña-Alampay, L., & Coatsworth, D. (2009). Individual and issue-specific differences in parental knowledge and adolescent disclosure in Chile, the Philippines, and the United States. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19, 715–740.CrossRef Darling, N., Cumsille, P., Peña-Alampay, L., & Coatsworth, D. (2009). Individual and issue-specific differences in parental knowledge and adolescent disclosure in Chile, the Philippines, and the United States. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19, 715–740.CrossRef
go back to reference Day, R. D., & Acock, A. (2004). Youth ratings of family processes and father role performance of resident and nonresident fathers. In R. D. Day & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement (pp. 273–292). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Day, R. D., & Acock, A. (2004). Youth ratings of family processes and father role performance of resident and nonresident fathers. In R. D. Day & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement (pp. 273–292). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
go back to reference De Wolff, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591.PubMedCrossRef De Wolff, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Dishion, T. J., Nelson, S. E., & Bullock, B. M. (2004). Premature adolescent autonomy: Parent disengagement and deviant peer process in the amplification of problem behavior. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 515–530.PubMedCrossRef Dishion, T. J., Nelson, S. E., & Bullock, B. M. (2004). Premature adolescent autonomy: Parent disengagement and deviant peer process in the amplification of problem behavior. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 515–530.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678–1683.PubMedCrossRef Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678–1683.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149–1160.PubMedCrossRef Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149–1160.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Field, T. (1995). Psychologically depressed parents. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4, Applied and practical parenting (pp. 85–99). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Field, T. (1995). Psychologically depressed parents. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4, Applied and practical parenting (pp. 85–99). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
go back to reference Fletcher, A. C., Steinberg, L., & Williams-Wheeler, M. (2004). Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: Revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Development, 75, 781–796.PubMedCrossRef Fletcher, A. C., Steinberg, L., & Williams-Wheeler, M. (2004). Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: Revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Development, 75, 781–796.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Almeida, D. M. (2003). Parents do matter: Trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 578–594.PubMedCrossRef Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Almeida, D. M. (2003). Parents do matter: Trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 578–594.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Herman, M. R., Dornbusch, S. M., Herron, M. C., & Herting, J. R. (1997). The influence of family regulation, connection, and psychological autonomy on six measures of adolescent functioning. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 34–67.CrossRef Herman, M. R., Dornbusch, S. M., Herron, M. C., & Herting, J. R. (1997). The influence of family regulation, connection, and psychological autonomy on six measures of adolescent functioning. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 34–67.CrossRef
go back to reference Hollingshead, A. B. (1979). The Hollingshead four-factor index of socioeconomic status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University, New Haven, CT. Hollingshead, A. B. (1979). The Hollingshead four-factor index of socioeconomic status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
go back to reference Keijsers, L., Branje, S. J. T., VanderValk, I. E., & Meeus, W. (2010). Reciprocal effects between parental solicitation, parental control, adolescent disclosure, and adolescent delinquency. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 88–113.CrossRef Keijsers, L., Branje, S. J. T., VanderValk, I. E., & Meeus, W. (2010). Reciprocal effects between parental solicitation, parental control, adolescent disclosure, and adolescent delinquency. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 88–113.CrossRef
go back to reference Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380.PubMedCrossRef Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C. A., D’Onofrio, B. M., Rodgers, J. L., & Waldman, I. D. (2008). Is parental knowledge of their adolescent offspring’s whereabouts and peer associations spuriously associated with offspring delinquency? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 807–823.PubMedCrossRef Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C. A., D’Onofrio, B. M., Rodgers, J. L., & Waldman, I. D. (2008). Is parental knowledge of their adolescent offspring’s whereabouts and peer associations spuriously associated with offspring delinquency? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 807–823.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Laird, R. D., & De Los Reyes, A. (2013). Testing informant discrepancies as predictors of early adolescent psychopathology: Why difference scores cannot tell you what you want to know and how polynomial regression may. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 1–14.PubMedCrossRef Laird, R. D., & De Los Reyes, A. (2013). Testing informant discrepancies as predictors of early adolescent psychopathology: Why difference scores cannot tell you what you want to know and how polynomial regression may. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 1–14.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Laird, R. D., & Marrero, M. D. (2010). Information management and behavior problems: Is concealing misbehavior necessarily a sign of trouble? Journal of Adolescence, 33, 297–308.PubMedCrossRef Laird, R. D., & Marrero, M. D. (2010). Information management and behavior problems: Is concealing misbehavior necessarily a sign of trouble? Journal of Adolescence, 33, 297–308.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Laird, R. D., Marrero, M. D., Melching, J. A., & Kuhn, E. S. (2013). Information management strategies in early adolescence: Developmental change in use and transactional associations with psychological adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 49, 928–937.PubMedCrossRef Laird, R. D., Marrero, M. D., Melching, J. A., & Kuhn, E. S. (2013). Information management strategies in early adolescence: Developmental change in use and transactional associations with psychological adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 49, 928–937.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Luo, S., & Klohnen, E. C. (2005). Assortative mating and marital quality in newlyweds: A couple-centered approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 304–326.PubMedCrossRef Luo, S., & Klohnen, E. C. (2005). Assortative mating and marital quality in newlyweds: A couple-centered approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 304–326.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference McElwain, N. L., Halberstadt, A. G., & Volling, B. L. (2007). Mother- and father-reported reactions to children’s negative emotions: Relations to young children’s emotional understanding and friendship quality. Child Development, 78, 1407–1425.PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral McElwain, N. L., Halberstadt, A. G., & Volling, B. L. (2007). Mother- and father-reported reactions to children’s negative emotions: Relations to young children’s emotional understanding and friendship quality. Child Development, 78, 1407–1425.PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral
go back to reference Murray, K. W., Dwyer, K. M., Rubin, K. H., Knighton-Wisor, S., & Booth-LaForce, C. (2013). Parent-child relationships, parental psychological control, and aggression: Maternal and paternal relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Murray, K. W., Dwyer, K. M., Rubin, K. H., Knighton-Wisor, S., & Booth-LaForce, C. (2013). Parent-child relationships, parental psychological control, and aggression: Maternal and paternal relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence.
go back to reference Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
go back to reference Parke, R. D. (2002). Fathers and families. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 27–73). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Parke, R. D. (2002). Fathers and families. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 27–73). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
go back to reference Pettit, G. S., Laird, R. D., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Criss, M. M. (2001). Antecedents and behavior-problem outcomes of parental monitoring and psychological control in early adolescence. Child Development, 72, 583–598.PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral Pettit, G. S., Laird, R. D., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Criss, M. M. (2001). Antecedents and behavior-problem outcomes of parental monitoring and psychological control in early adolescence. Child Development, 72, 583–598.PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentral
go back to reference Pleck, J. H., & Masciadrelli, B. P. (2004). Parental involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th ed., pp. 222–273). New York: Wiley. Pleck, J. H., & Masciadrelli, B. P. (2004). Parental involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th ed., pp. 222–273). New York: Wiley.
go back to reference Racz, S. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2011). The relationship between parental knowledge and monitoring and child and adolescent conduct problems: A 10-year update. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 377–398.PubMedCrossRef Racz, S. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2011). The relationship between parental knowledge and monitoring and child and adolescent conduct problems: A 10-year update. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 377–398.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Rogers, K. N., Buchanan, C. M., & Winchell, M. E. (2003). Psychological control during early adolescence: Links to adjustment in differing parent/adolescent dyads. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 349–383.CrossRef Rogers, K. N., Buchanan, C. M., & Winchell, M. E. (2003). Psychological control during early adolescence: Links to adjustment in differing parent/adolescent dyads. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 349–383.CrossRef
go back to reference Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.PubMedCrossRef Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother–father differences in parenting to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 212–241.CrossRef Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother–father differences in parenting to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 212–241.CrossRef
go back to reference Smetana, J. G. (2011). Adolescents, families, and social development: How teens construct their worlds. Malden, MA: Wiley. Smetana, J. G. (2011). Adolescents, families, and social development: How teens construct their worlds. Malden, MA: Wiley.
go back to reference Smetana, J. G., Villalobos, M., Rogge, R. D., & Tasopoulos-Chan, M. (2010). Keeping secrets from parents: Daily variations among poor, urban adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 321–331.PubMedCrossRef Smetana, J. G., Villalobos, M., Rogge, R. D., & Tasopoulos-Chan, M. (2010). Keeping secrets from parents: Daily variations among poor, urban adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 321–331.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., Vansteenkiste, M., Duriez, B., & Goossens, L. (2008). Clarifying the link between parental psychological control and adolescents’ depressive symptoms: Reciprocal versus unidirectional models. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54, 411–444.CrossRef Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., Vansteenkiste, M., Duriez, B., & Goossens, L. (2008). Clarifying the link between parental psychological control and adolescents’ depressive symptoms: Reciprocal versus unidirectional models. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54, 411–444.CrossRef
go back to reference Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyckx, K., & Goossens, L. (2006). Parenting and adolescent problem behavior: An integrated model with adolescent self-disclosure and perceived parental knowledge as intervening variables. Developmental Psychology, 42, 305–318.PubMedCrossRef Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyckx, K., & Goossens, L. (2006). Parenting and adolescent problem behavior: An integrated model with adolescent self-disclosure and perceived parental knowledge as intervening variables. Developmental Psychology, 42, 305–318.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085.PubMedCrossRef Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Steinberg, L., Fletcher, A., & Darling, N. (1994). Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. Pediatrics, 93, 1060–1063.PubMed Steinberg, L., Fletcher, A., & Darling, N. (1994). Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. Pediatrics, 93, 1060–1063.PubMed
go back to reference Tilton-Weaver, L., Kerr, M., Pakalniskeine, V., Tokic, A., Salihovic, S., & Stattin, H. (2010). Open up or close down: How do parental reactions affect youth information management? Journal of Adolescence, 33, 333–346.PubMedCrossRef Tilton-Weaver, L., Kerr, M., Pakalniskeine, V., Tokic, A., Salihovic, S., & Stattin, H. (2010). Open up or close down: How do parental reactions affect youth information management? Journal of Adolescence, 33, 333–346.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Waizenhofer, R. N., Buchanan, C. M., & Jackson-Newsom, J. (2004). Mothers’ and fathers’ knowledge of adolescents’ daily activities: Its sources and its links with adolescent adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 348–360.PubMedCrossRef Waizenhofer, R. N., Buchanan, C. M., & Jackson-Newsom, J. (2004). Mothers’ and fathers’ knowledge of adolescents’ daily activities: Its sources and its links with adolescent adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 348–360.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Yau, J. P., Tasopoulos-Chan, M., & Smetana, J. G. (2009). Disclosure to parents about everyday activities among American adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds. Child Development, 80, 1481–1498.PubMedCrossRef Yau, J. P., Tasopoulos-Chan, M., & Smetana, J. G. (2009). Disclosure to parents about everyday activities among American adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds. Child Development, 80, 1481–1498.PubMedCrossRef
Metagegevens
Titel
Mothers’ and Fathers’ Autonomy-Relevant Parenting: Longitudinal Links with Adolescents’ Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior
Auteurs
Jennifer E. Lansford
Robert D. Laird
Gregory S. Pettit
John E. Bates
Kenneth A. Dodge
Publicatiedatum
01-11-2014
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Journal of Youth and Adolescence / Uitgave 11/2014
Print ISSN: 0047-2891
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-6601
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0079-2

Andere artikelen Uitgave 11/2014

Journal of Youth and Adolescence 11/2014 Naar de uitgave