Based on the literature linking mindfulness with decentering and with better interactions with others, this study aimed to examine the associations of daily mindfulness and decentering with the mother–child relationship and with mothers’ well-being, during the first COVID-19 lockdown.
Method
The study involved 84 mothers with an average age of 40.25 years (SD = 6.75), who completed daily online questionnaires, and were randomly assigned to one of two interventions: mindfulness practice or listening to relaxing music (active control group).
Results
The findings indicated a significant association between mothers’ daily mindfulness levels and their relationships with their children on the same day, including increased frequency of hugs and improved daily communication with children. Additionally, a significant association was found between daily mindfulness and decentering, and daily decentering was also associated with mother–child relationships, including improvements in communication quality and increased frequency of hugs. Decentering was also associated with mothers' well-being, reflected in increased positive emotions and decreased negative emotions. However, no differences were found between the intervention groups.
Conclusions
This daily diary study highlights the associations of mindfulness and decentering with daily aspects of mother–child relationships and mothers’ well-being during crisis. The study emphasizes the potential of further research to explore how mindfulness influences relationships and other aspects of daily life, to advance the understanding and application of mindfulness and mindfulness practice as a means of psychological support.
Mindfulness is defined as “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 2015, p. 4). Studies have shown that mindfulness practice helps individuals focus on present experiences and reduce stress and anxiety (Bhattacharya & Hofmann et al., 2023), and contributes to improved mental health by alleviating symptoms of anxiety, depression, and psychological distress (Witarto et al., 2022; Yalçın et al., 2022). Alongside mindfulness as a practice, researchers have also examined dispositional mindfulness (DM), the natural tendency to maintain present-moment awareness in a nonjudgmental and nonreactive manner (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Recent research continues to support the conceptualization of DM as a multidimensional construct including elements such as nonjudgment and nonreactivity, which help reduce ruminative thinking and mitigate the impact of stress on well-being (Iani et al., 2018). As both a trait and a practice, mindfulness has been recognized as a useful tool for stress reduction and for improving interpersonal relationships (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Duncan et al., 2009).
Decentering is a psychological construct closely related to mindfulness and considered a key metacognitive process promoted by mindfulness practice. It refers to the ability to observe thoughts and emotions from a detached and nonreactive perspective as temporary mental events rather than reflections of the self or absolute truths (Bernstein et al., 2015). This aligns with the core principle of mindfulness: nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2015). Decentering is also central to the Mindful Self in Social Relationships (MSSR) model (Lavy & Berkovich-Ohana, 2020) which proposes that mindfulness reduces self-centered psychological processing and enhances interpersonal functioning. In this model, reduced self-centeredness and improved relationships (e.g., teacher-student or parent–child) are seen as pathways through which mindfulness contributes to individuals’ well-being. The model is grounded in neuroscientific evidence and highlights decentering as a critical mechanism linking mindfulness with positive relational outcomes. Empirical studies support this perspective, showing that higher levels of decentering are associated with reduced depression and anxiety (Fresco et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2022), and with improved interpersonal relationships (van der Schans et al., 2020). Accordingly, and based on findings from our previous study (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023) with a similar population, decentering was selected as a core mechanism in the present research. Prior findings also underscore the potential value of decentering during challenging periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic, where it may play a key role in maintaining positive family relationships and reducing emotional strain. Moreover, decentering has been linked with improved parent–child relationships van der Schans et al. (2020), pointing to its importance in supporting family dynamics.
The relevance of mindfulness to coping became especially apparent during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social distancing measures, school closures, and rising unemployment led to major disruptions in daily life. People were required to remain at home for extended periods, affecting their daily routines, social interactions, and family dynamics (Cai et al., 2021; Tso & Park, 2020). Children in particular experienced a dramatic shift in their access to educational and social resources (Wong et al., 2021). Simultaneously, parents were tasked with managing their children's learning while balancing work obligations—often with little or no external support (Spinelli et al., 2020). Studies conducted during the pandemic indicated that higher levels of DM were associated with better parental well-being and improved coping with rising family demands. For example, Conversano et al. (2020) found that individuals with high DM experienced less psychological distress due to social isolation.
Mindfulness was also found to play a particularly significant role in parenting. Mindful parenting refers to the integration of mindfulness principles into parenting behavior, emphasizing nonjudgment, emotional regulation, and present-moment attention during interactions with children. Studies suggest that mindful parents are better able to respond with emotional sensitivity, model self-regulation, and support their children's emotional development (Cheung et al., 2021; Duncan et al., 2009). In addition, mindful parenting has been found to reduce judgmental attitudes and reactivity in parent–child interactions, promoting more effective coping with daily parenting challenges (Bögels & Restifo, 2014).
Research on parent–child relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic indicates that high parental stress can deplete emotional and cognitive resources, making it more difficult for parents to regulate their children's emotions (Aguiar et al., 2021). Stressed parents are more likely to adopt negative or authoritarian strategies, which can damage parent–child relationships (Jackson & Choi, 2018). In contrast, positive family functioning, including strong parent–child bonds, has been shown to buffer children from the adverse effects of the pandemic (Masten & Narayan, 2012; Prime et al., 2020). Positive parenting, characterized by emotional support, adaptive coping, and nurturing family environments, has been linked to greater resilience in children (Kliewer et al., 1996; Russell et al., 2020). Mindful parenting, as discussed above, contributes to strengthening parent–child bonds, especially during times of stress, by enabling parents to regulate automatic responses and attend to their children’s emotional needs (Parent et al., 2016; Potharst et al., 2019; Ren et al., 2021). Both the previous study (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023) and the current study focused on mothers, as they are often the primary caregivers in families (Almeida et al., 2020), and studies have shown that mothers typically spend more time in direct caregiving than fathers (Erickson, 2015).
In our previous article about this study, conducted during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Israel (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023), mothers across three research conditions (mindfulness-based intervention, MBI; relaxing music intervention, RMI; and no intervention, NI) reported improvements in well-being and in their relationship with their child, regardless of the condition. These findings raised the question of whether such changes could also be observed at the daily level, and what underlying processes might account for them. Despite growing interest in mindfulness research, daily diary studies incorporating mindfulness remain scarce, particularly in parenting contexts during times of crisis. The present study, launched at the onset of the lockdown in Israel, examined how mothers’ daily mindfulness relates to decentering, emotional and physical closeness between mothers and their children, and maternal well-being. While prior studies have shown that mindfulness can promote daily well-being (Perelman et al., 2022), they have not focused on parenting or examined decentering as a central mechanism. This study aims to extend existing knowledge by combining an asynchronous mindfulness-based intervention with real-time daily assessment, in the unique context of parenting under unstable and crisis-driven conditions.
To our knowledge, no prior study has examined daily fluctuations in mindfulness, decentering, and relational quality during a time of global crisis. This study aims to address this gap by exploring the day-to-day associations between these variables during the initial COVID-19 lockdown, a period marked by heightened stress, disrupted routines, and increased family proximity.
The present study aimed to examine whether mothers’ mindfulness levels on a given day are positively related to the quality of the mother–child relationship on that day (Hypothesis 1) and whether mindfulness levels are related to maternal well-being on that day, as reflected in less negative emotions and more positive emotions (Hypothesis 2). Furthermore, the study explored whether mothers’ mindfulness levels on a given day are positively associated with their decentering levels on that day (Hypothesis 3) and whether daily decentering is positively linked with mother–child relationship and maternal well-being on that day (Hypothesis 4). Finally, we investigated whether significant daily-level differences exist between the mindfulness-based intervention group and the relaxing-music intervention group (Hypothesis 5). The research hypotheses were as follows (see Fig. 1 for a summary):
The research sample consisted of 84 mothers (years of age 26–59, M = 40.25, SD = 6.75), who were recruited through various social media platforms, including WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram, in Israel between the end of March and April 2020. This daily diary sample (n = 84) was drawn from a broader intervention study sample (n = 109), which was previously analyzed in our earlier study (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023). The previous study examined changes in maternal well-being and parent–child relationships before and after a 12-day intervention period, among participants in three conditions: a mindfulness-based intervention, MBI; relaxing music intervention, which served as a placebo-control group, RMI; and no-intervention, NI which served as an empty control group. The NI group comprised 25 participants who completed only the pre- and post-intervention questionnaires, and did not take part in the daily assessment. Thus, these participants are not included in this study. No significant differences in baseline measures (e.g., mindfulness familiarity or practice) were found between the NI group and the other groups for mindfulness familiarity (χ2(2) = 4.12, p = 0.13), or for mindfulness practice (χ2(2) = 1.30, p = 0.52). Although the study was open to all parents, only mothers completed the full daily diary protocol. Therefore, the current study focuses on maternal experiences.
The initial contact with participants was made by the first author, who sent a personalized message explaining the study's aims and inviting mothers to join by following a link to the study’s registration form. The research commenced after obtaining informed consent from the participants and collecting initial contact details. After completing the initial (pre-intervention) questionnaire, participants were randomly assigned in equal numbers to one of the three research conditions (Fig. 2). However, the RMI served as an active control group. Participants dropped out immediately after randomization, before receiving information about their assigned condition. This early attrition occurred prior to the start of the intervention and was therefore unlikely to be related to group assignment. Throughout the study, participants who were unwilling to complete daily questionnaires, submitted irregular responses, or did not provide full daily data were excluded from the daily study, which required consistent daily participation. A significant number of mothers (n = 25) started the process but did not complete it, so their data were not included in this study. Eventually, 48 participants remained in the MBI group, and 36 participants remained in the RMI group.
To ensure there were no demographic differences between the experimental group (MBI) and the control group (RMI), a comparison was conducted across key demographic variables. Continuous variables, such as average age and average number of children, as well as categorical demographic variables are presented in Table 1, which displays the percentage of participants in each category and the p-values tested for overall group differences on each variable.
Table 1
Demographic Comparison Between Mindfulness and Control Groups
Variable
Category
Group 1 (Mindfulness)
%/Mean (SD)
Group 2 (Control)
%/Mean (SD)
p-value
Age
Mean (SD)
39.65 (6.87)
41.06 (6.60)
0.347
Number of children
Mean (SD)
2.27 (1.07)
2.53 (1.16)
0.295
Family Status
Single
6.3%
2.8%
0.749
Married
87.5%
91.7%
Divorced
6.3%
5.6%
Religion
Jewish
100%
100%
Religious Level
Secular
75.0%
72.2%
0.528
Traditional
14.6%
22.2%
Religious
10.4%
5.6%
Educational Level
High School
6.3%
2.8%
0.761
Diploma
8.3%
16.7%
Bachelor's
31.3%
27.8%
Master's
52.1%
50.0%
PhD
2.1%
2.8%
Mindfulness Awareness
Yes
79.2%
80.6%
0.875
No
20.8%
19.4%
Practices Mindfulness
Yes
17.9%
13.3%
0.604
No
82.1%
86.7%
Leaving Home During Lockdown
Does Not Leave Home
16.7%
17.6%
0.518
Minimizes Outings
58.3%
70.6%
Goes Out for Work
12.5%
5.9%
Goes Out for Fresh Air
12.5%
5.9%
Employment Status
Works Normally
16.7%
5.6%
0.215
Works from Home
54.2%
52.8%
Unemployed/Furloughed
29.2%
41.7%
Procedure
Participants participated in daily intervention activities for 12 business days. All procedural steps, including questionnaire distribution and participant communication, were performed digitally, adhering to the study's remote setup. The study’s protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Haifa prior to data collection.
Both groups engaged in daily brief activities, receiving access through links sent to their phones or emails. The MBI consisted of a 10-min guided mindfulness session (http://bit.ly/research_audio) led by a certified mindfulness instructor. This session included a body scan, with continual emphasis on mindful breathing. The English translation of the instructions is available in Appendix 1. The RMI, which served as an active control group, featured 10-min segments of relaxing music sourced from YouTube (https://youtu.be/WVeEsL6I8ZQ). The RMI served as an active control group.
The daily questionnaire and the links for the daily intervention for the experimental group (MBI) and the control group (RMI) were sent every evening around 8 p.m. To align with Israeli weekend routines and ensure consistent daily conditions, no questionnaires or intervention links were sent on Friday evenings, Saturdays, or the evenings preceding holidays. On those days, no contact was made with participants, and daily assessments were not conducted.
The intervention was administered individually and asynchronously. Each evening, participants received a link to a 10-min audio recording, either a guided mindfulness practice or relaxing music, according to their group assignment. The sessions were not conducted in real time and were not facilitated by the research team. To monitor adherence, the daily questionnaire included two self-report items: one asking whether the participant listened to the recording the previous day, and another asking whether they completed it to the end.
The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Haifa, and all participants signed a consent form prior to data collection. The study was not preregistered.
Measures
To minimize participant attrition, particularly since the study was voluntary and uncompensated during the stressful early phase of the COVID-19 lockdown, we used abridged versions of all measures except the Demographic Questionnaire. The selection of questionnaire items was guided by a preliminary pilot study, their relevance to parents during lockdown, and item loadings from prior research. The daily items assessing mindfulness in parenting and parent–child closeness were adapted from validated instruments originally developed for teacher–student contexts. These items were modified to fit the parenting domain, allowing the study to launch promptly while maintaining conceptual alignment with established constructs. This approach helped avoid delays during the COVID-19 crisis, as it allowed the researchers to retain the structure of the IRB approval obtained before the crisis, with only minor modifications that were approved immediately.
Demographic Questionnaire
At baseline, participants completed a demographic questionnaire that included age, gender, marital status, number and age of children, education level, employment status, and previous mindfulness experience.
Daily Lockdown Activities and Familial Relationships Questionnaire
This questionnaire (Appendix 2) was tailored for a crisis setting to provide a comprehensive picture of participants’ daily lives during the lockdown. It consisted of multiple-choice questions about daily routines during the lockdown. Additionally, mothers were asked about their relationship and interaction with their children, such as the frequency of hugs (ICC = 0.61) and the significance they attributed to communication with their children (ICC = 0.41). Other questions examined the mothers’ presence with their children.
Due to the urgent need to begin data collection during the first days of the COVID-19 lockdown, we adapted existing measures and developed this brief daily questionnaire to capture changes in parent–child interaction and emotional experiences in real time. The items were constructed based on the researchers’ firsthand understanding of the evolving dynamics of home life during lockdown. While not deriving from a standardized parental warmth scale, they aimed to reflect meaningful dimensions of family relationships during a crisis.
Interpersonal Mindfulness in Teaching Scale
Originally designed to evaluate educators' mindfulness in their interactions with children and consisting of 20 items (Frank et al., 2016), this scale's focus was shifted from teachers to parents, a modification validated in previous research by (name deleted to preserve the integrity of the review). For this study, we employed a shortened version of the IMT (Appendix 3) that included only 5 of the original items, such as I found it difficult to stay focused on what was happening in the present moment today, with responses rated on a Likert scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (strongly agree). The reliability of this shortened scale was deemed acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.77). The shortened version for teachers of the IMT was previously tested (Lavy & Bocker, 2018), providing a basis for confidence in the reliability of the shortened scale in capturing mindfulness.
Experiences Questionnaire
Decentering was assessed using a shortened, 10-item version of the decentering subscale from the Experiences Questionnaire (EQ; Fresco et al., 2007; see Appendix 3). This scale measures mothers’ abilities to remain detached from their thoughts and feelings, avoid automatic reactions to negative experiences, and maintain self-compassion (e.g., I was understanding and gentle with myself today, even when things went wrong), with responses rated on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (strongly agree). The reliability of this subscale was satisfactory (Cronbach’s α = 0.74; ICC = 0.46).
Teacher–Student Relationship Questionnaire
The Teacher–Student Relationship Questionnaire (TSR; Gehlbach et al., 2012) was adapted to measure mother–child interactions by substituting “students” with “children” where applicable (see Appendix 3 and [name deleted to preserve the integrity of the review]). Sample statements include: I said something encouraging to my child today and I tried to see my child’s side in a conflict before making a decision. Responses were rated on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (strongly agree). The scale’s reliability was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.74; ICC = 0.32). Originally, the study planned to examine teacher–student relationships, but with the outbreak of COVID-19 and the subsequent national lockdown that closed schools, the focus shifted to parenting during the lockdown. To avoid a lengthy process of obtaining new IRB approval, we asked to modify the existing approval and adjusted the approved questionnaire to suit the mother–child relationship context.
Positive and Negative Affect Scale
Well-being was assessed using two indicators: mothers’ positive and negative emotions. Maternal emotions were gauged using a shortened, 7-item version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988; see Appendix 3), including three positive (pride, enthusiasm, joy) and four negative (fear, guilt, irritability, stress) items, with daily emotional statements rated on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (strongly agree). The internal reliability was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.79 and 0.75 for positive and negative affect, respectively; ICC PANAS Positive = 0.56; ICC PANAS Negative = 0.52).
Data Analyses
In accordance with the multilevel structure of the data, daily measurements (Level 1) were nested within person-level data (Level 2). Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was conducted to examine the daily effects of mindfulness and decentering. The dependent variables were the daily relationship measures (mother–child relationship quality, number of daily hugs, daily communication with children) and the daily well-being measures (daily positive and negative emotions). Daily mindfulness and decentering were entered as Level 1 independent variables (first separately and then together, to examine their unique and combined effects). To examine the effect of the intervention group (MBI) compared to the control group (RMI), the participants’ group (at Level 2 – the person level) and the interaction between the group and the daily mindfulness/decentering effects were also entered into the equations as additional independent variables.
The analyses were conducted using SAS software. Model assumptions were checked, and the ICCs are reported (note that in this study the multilevel analysis is required regardless of the ICC statistics, due to the study design). The model fit was evaluated using Akaike Information Criteria (AIC).
Although no a priori power analysis was conducted, the study design is consistent with established methodological recommendations for multilevel diary research. As Bolger and Laurenceau (2013) explain, statistical power in such studies is primarily determined by the number of Level 1 observations rather than the number of participants. With 84 participants providing 12 daily observations each (over 1,000 total observations), the current study meets recommended thresholds for detecting within-person effects in intensive longitudinal designs.
Results
Findings from the daily-level analyses (Level 1) revealed that mothers' daily mindfulness levels were positively associated with the mother–child relationship (b = 0.48, SE = 0.03, p < 0.001), as well as with improvements in daily communication with children (b = 0.35, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001). Additionally, a positive relationship was found between daily mindfulness and the frequency of daily hugs (b = 0.26, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001).
All reported results refer to same-day associations between the daily assessed variables. These results indicate that daily mindfulness was positively associated with better daily mother–child relationship, supporting the first hypothesis (Table 2).
Table 2
The Effect of Daily Mindfulness on the Mother-Child Relationship and Mothers' Well-Being
Daily Relationships
Daily Hugs
Daily Communication
Daily Positive Emotions
Daily Negative Emotions
Daily Decentering
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
Level 1 (Daily level)
Daily mindfulness
0.48***
0.03
15.06
0.26***
0.04
5.76
0.35***
0.05
7.02
0.47***
0.05
9.33
0.48***
0.04
–12.19
0.51***
0.04
12.57
Level 2 (Person level)
Group (mindfulness intervention vs. control)
0.09
0.24
0.39
0.71
0.38
1.90
0.31
0.39
0.80
0.24
0.42
0.58
–0.04
0.32
–0.14
0.19
0.33
0.59
Interaction
Group X daily mindfulness
0.0002
0.004
0.05
–0.10
0.06
–1.69
–0.07
0.07
–1.01
0.004
0.07
0.06
0.02
0.05
0.39
–0.06
0.06
–1.13
AIC
1935.19
2432.97
2386.82
2864.03
2725.51
2479.80
*p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001; b Parameter estimates; SE Standard errors
The data show that mothers who experienced higher levels of mindfulness on a certain day reported more positive emotions (b = 0.47, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001) and less daily negative emotions (b = –0.48, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001) on that day. These results support the second hypothesis that daily mindfulness is associated with better maternal well-being. Additionally, the relationship between daily mindfulness and decentering was positive and significant (b = 0.51, SE = 0.04, t = 12.57, p < 0.001), supporting the third hypothesis (Table 2).
Findings from the daily-level analyses (Level 1) revealed that mothers' decentering levels on a certain day were positively linked with mother–child relationship quality (b = 0.42, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001), the frequency of daily hugs (b = 0.25, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001), and better communication with the children (b = 0.33, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001) on that day. Additionally, mothers who reported higher levels of decentering on a certain day also experienced more positive emotions (b = 0.53, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001) and fewer negative emotions (b = –0.54, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001) on that day. These results support the fourth hypothesis (Table 3).
Table 3
The Effect of Daily Decentering on the Mother-Child Relationship and Mothers' Well-Being
Daily Relationships
Daily Hugs
Daily Communication
Daily Positive Emotions
Daily Negative Emotions
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
Level 1 (Daily level)
Daily decentering
0.42***
0.04
11.53
0.25***
0.05
5.26
0.33***
0.05
6.24
0.53***
0.05
9.81
–0.54***
0.04
–12.80
Level 2 (Person level)
Group (mindfulness intervention vs. control)
0.41
0.25
1.63
0.30
0.35
0.86
0.07
0.36
0.21
0.85
0.39
2.16
–0.56
0.31
–1.92
Interaction
Group X daily decentering
–0.06
0.05
–1.30
–0.02
0.06
–0.37
0.02
0.07
–0.27
–0.11
0.07
–1.56
0.12
0.05
2.23
AIC
2105.35
2470.08
2698.44
2871.65
2396.43
*p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001; b Parameter estimates; SE Standard errors
The findings did not support Hypothesis 5, which predicted daily-level differences between the groups. No significant differences were found between the two intervention groups regarding the daily mother–child relationship (b = 0.004, SE = 0.24, p = 0.95), the frequency of daily hugs (b = 0.02, SE = 0.38, p = 0.88), daily communication with children (b = 0.02, SE = 0.36, p = 0.85), positive emotions (b = 0.05, SE = 0.39, p = 0.74), or negative emotions (b = –0.02, SE = 0.32, p = 0.81) (Tables 2 and 3).
To evaluate the unique and combined effects of mindfulness and decentering, we also conducted a set of analyses in which they were both entered together into the equations as predictors. The results indicated unique contributions for both variables. Specifically, mindfulness on a certain day was positively associated with the mother–child relationship (b = 0.37, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001), the frequency of hugs (b = 0.18, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001), communication with children (b = 0.25, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001), and positive emotions (b = 0.28, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001) on that day, while being negatively associated with negative emotions (b = –0.23, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001) on that day.
Similarly, daily decentering showed positive associations with the mother–child relationship (b = 0.21, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001), the frequency of daily hugs (b = 0.14, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001), daily communication with children (b = 0.18, SE = 0.06, p < 0.01), and positive emotions (b = 0.37, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001), and a negative association with negative emotions (b = –0.37, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001) (Table 4).
Table 4
The Combined Effect of Decentering and Mindfulness on the Mother-Child Relationship and Mothers' Well-Being
Daily Relationships
Daily Hugs
Daily Communication
Daily Positive Emotions
Daily Negative Emotions
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
b
SE
t-value
Level 1 (Daily level)
Daily mindfulness
0.37***
0.04
10.24
0.18***
0.05
3.45
0.25***
0.06
4.36
0.28***
0.06
4.82
–0.23***
0.04
–6.60
Daily decentering
0.21***
0.04
5.45
0.14***
0.05
2.56
0.18**
0.06
2.99
0.37***
0.06
5.94
–0.37***
0.05
–0.77
Level 2 (Person level)
Group (mindfulness intervention vs. control)
0.09
0.26
0.34
0.55
0.40
1.37
0.14
0.42
0.33
0.41
0.44
0.94
–0.23
0.34
–0.69
Interaction
Group X daily mindfulness
0.03
0.05
0.60
–0.11
0.07
–1.64
–0.07
0.08
–0.99
0.07
0.07
0.96
–0.04
0.06
–0.77
Group X daily decentering
–0.02
0.05
–0.49
0.05
0.07
0.70
0.05
0.05
0.64
–0.11
0.08
–1.32
0.10
0.06
1.68
AIC
1880.93
2464.69
2706.17
2810.81
2293.97
*p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001; b Parameter estimates; SE Standard errors
Discussion
The study results supported four out of the five hypotheses. In support of Hypothesis 1, daily mindfulness was associated with a better mother–child relationship, improved communication, and more daily hugs. These results are aligned with previous studies, suggesting that mindful parenting may reduce judgmental attitudes during parent–child interactions (Bögels & Restifo, 2014), model self–regulation for their children (Cheung et al., 2021), and help parents adopt a more compassionate, nonjudgmental, and self-regulated approach that fosters a deeper emotional connection (Duncan et al., 2009). Mindfulness was also found to improve the quality of interpersonal relationships (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Baer, 2003). The positive relationship between daily mindfulness and the mother–child relationship suggests that mothers with higher mindfulness levels may be more present and attentive to their children's needs on that day, fostering a more supportive and nurturing environment, particularly during times of stress and uncertainty such as a pandemic lockdown. This is further supported by the increase in the frequency of hugs, which serves as a tangible expression of affection and connection.
In support of Hypothesis 2, daily mindfulness was associated with more positive emotions and less negative emotions, generally reflecting better maternal well-being. These results are aligned with other studies of parents during the COVID-19 pandemic, which revealed that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness helped them maintain mental well-being and cope with increased family pressures, such as increased psychological distress from social isolation (Conversano et al., 2020) and parental burnout (Paucsik et al., 2021). The positive association of mindfulness with well-being, as demonstrated by increased positive emotions and decreased negative emotions on the same day, reinforces the idea that mindfulness is an effective resource for regulating emotions, especially during periods of ambiguity and stress.
A daily positive relationship between mindfulness and decentering was also observed, supporting Hypothesis 3. This is not surprising, given that decentering is thought to be a key element of mindfulness (David et al., 2022; Garland et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2023). The connection between mindfulness and decentering suggests that daily mindfulness may enhance the ability to observe thoughts and feelings from a more detached perspective. This can allow individuals to respond to situations more clearly and less reactively, a skill that is especially critical in times of stress and uncertainty. Feldman et al. (2010) highlighted this process, where mindfulness plays a central role in improving decentering abilities, contributing to better coping with challenging emotional situations. The unique contributions of the present study lie in examining the daily relationship between mindfulness and decentering using a daily diary methodology, and in exploring this association within the unique context of a collective crisis (the initial COVID-19 lockdown). This approach offers ecologically valid and a nuanced understanding of how these processes co-occur in mothers’ everyday lives under conditions of stress and uncertainty, extending insights beyond structured interventions or trait-level analyses.
Furthermore, the decentering process contributed to better mother–child relationships and heightened well-being. Specifically, daily decentering was associated with better mother–child communication, more positive interactions, reduced negative emotions and increased positive emotions, supporting Hypothesis 4. Decentering has previously been shown to have a positive impact on parent–child relationships (Adair et al., 2018; Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2019; Duncan et al., 2009; Lavy & Berkovich-Ohana, 2020). Similarly, ample research has provided strong evidence for the relationship between decentering and well-being (Grabovac et al., 2011; Guo, 2024; Sgherza et al., 2022; Shapiro et al., 2006).
In contrast, the findings did not support Hypothesis 5, which predicted daily-level differences between the Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) group and the control group – the Relaxing Music Intervention (RMI) group in measures of the mother–child relationship, communication, daily hugs, positive emotions, and negative emotions. This finding aligns with the previous study (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023) and suggests that the intervention itself may not have had a direct impact, while environmental factors during this time of crisis may have played a significant role (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023).
The extended presence of the family together, the shared quality time between mothers and their children, and the reduction in mothers' workload due to fewer demands related to work or education may have contributed to the improvement in mother–child relationships and maternal well-being. These findings highlight the significant potential of a supportive family environment in strengthening interpersonal connections and improving family well-being; however, the current study design does not allow clear disentanglement of the effects of the intervention from those of environmental changes.
Mothers may benefit from setting aside dedicated times to disconnect from work and external stimuli, focusing instead on quality time with their children. When a mother is fully present during interactions with her children, she is able to focus on their abilities, changes, and development while also being aware of her own emotions in response to these experiences. For example, a shared activity like baking can be an opportunity for mindful engagement. Mothers and children can plan the steps of the recipe, measure and explore ingredients, observe how they combine, and enjoy the evolving colors, textures, and aromas. Along the way, they can reflect on the emotions and sensations that arise from collaboration, waiting, and achieving the final result. Mindful attention can also be integrated into other activities, such as shared play, physical exercise, outdoor walks, and even educational activities like reading or writing. These daily activities become opportunities for deepening the mother–child bond, and improving maternal well-being.
In conclusion, the study's findings suggest that daily mindfulness is associated with daily decentering, and they are both associated with various aspects of better mother–child relationships, even in a time of crisis. In addition, environmental factors seem to have a much broader impact than previously assumed, impact that may override the effects of mindfulness practice. Intentional environmental changes, such as creating structured family routines that emphasize mindful quality time, provide practical opportunities to cultivate mindfulness, improve well-being, and strengthen family relationships. While these ideas remain speculative, they open pathways for further research and the development of tailored interventions that support both personal and family well-being.
Limitations and Future Research
Despite the valuable insights provided by this study, several limitations must be considered. The reliance on self-administered questionnaires introduces potential bias, as participants might underreport negative emotions or overestimate positive aspects of their relationships. Additionally, the daily nature of the study raises questions about the potential influence of repeated engagement on participants' responses. The consistent interaction with the researcher through the daily delivery of questionnaires and evening interventions may have provided participants with a sense of support during this challenging period. This sense of support could have influenced participants to perceive themselves as calmer, more regulated, and in better relationships with their children.
Only mothers who volunteered to participate and diligently completed the questionnaires every day were included in the study’s statistics. This suggests that the sample might consist of mothers who were able to allocate time each evening to complete the questionnaire and maintain consistent participation. This, in turn, could indicate that these mothers were more emotionally regulated from the outset, which may have influenced their ability to fully engage with the study's demands.
Since the study was conducted online and the interventions were performed independently, it is not possible to verify with certainty whether the participants consistently engaged in the practices. Although the exercises were provided after participants completed the questionnaire, and mothers were asked each day if they had listened to the previous evening's practice, the independent nature of the practice without researcher oversight must be considered as a further limitation of the study.
Moreover, the repetitive nature of certain daily questions such as “To what extent did you hug your children today?” may have prompted mothers to reflect more deeply on their behavior. Over time, this reflection might have increased their awareness of the intensity of their hugs, the emotions these actions evoked, and their overall behavior toward their children. This suggests that the study itself, by encouraging self-reflection, may have had a positive impact on participants' behavior and emotion regulation.
Beyond the influence of repeated reflection triggered by the daily questions, measurement-related limitations must also be considered. One limitation of the current study is that well-being was assessed solely through the PANAS, which focuses on momentary emotional experiences and does not include broader or long-term aspects of well-being. Therefore, future studies are encouraged to include additional, multidimensional measures of well-being in order to more thoroughly examine the emotional and daily impact of mindfulness practice.
In addition, some limitations pertain to the instruments used to assess mindfulness, the quality of the parent–child relationship, and parental warmth. The mindfulness and parent–child relationship measures were adapted from teacher–student questionnaires, as the study was originally designed for teachers and was rapidly adjusted to focus on parents at the onset of the first COVID-19 lockdown. For the same reason, a new questionnaire was developed specifically for this study, comprising several dimensions of parent–child interactions, including parental warmth. Although these measures allowed timely and contextually relevant data collection during the lockdown, they have not yet been validated for parenting populations. However, both adapted tools were used previously and demonstrated meaningful results in our earlier study on mothers during the first COVID-19 lockdown (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023), which provides initial support for their practical relevance in this context.
Future studies should utilize validated instruments specifically designed for parenting populations to assess parental warmth, mindfulness, and parent–child relationships. Alternatively, the adapted tools used in the present study could be employed for comparative purposes; however, formal validation within parenting samples would first be required to ensure construct validity and measurement reliability.
In addition to limitations related to the scope of measurement, structural aspects of the study design also impose constraints. A key limitation of the current study is the lack of a passive control group that completed the daily questionnaires, which restricts causal conclusions regarding the intervention's effectiveness. However, findings from examination of the general effects of the intervention (not at the daily level), which included a no-intervention control group, also indicated no significant differences between groups (Ben Uriel-Maoz et al., 2023). These converging findings support the current study’s focus on identifying intra-individual mechanisms underlying mindfulness-related changes in well-being.
Beyond these methodological limitations, the unique historical context of the COVID-19 lockdown must also be considered. The lockdown created an unusual environment where reduced external demands and increased family time likely influenced well-being and interpersonal relationships. While this provided a valuable opportunity to explore family dynamics during a period of significant disruption, the findings may not fully apply to other situations, such as routine conditions or crises with heightened pressures, including warfare or subsequent lockdowns with more intensive demands, like online learning. Future studies should examine similar questions during different crisis periods, focusing on the impact of changing family dynamics on parents’ well-being and their relationships with their children. It is possible that in the early days of the lockdown when employment conditions were uncertain, and employers were not yet demanding regular productivity, mothers were able to be more present at home, focusing on their children without the additional pressures of work or academic responsibilities.
Investigating these dynamics across various phases of crises could provide further insights into how external circumstances, such as extended time spent at home and increased quality family interactions, influence family relationships. For instance, future research could explore how structured family routines, which dedicate time to shared activities such as playing, cooking, or learning, affect the quality of parent–child relationships and the emotional well-being of all family members.
Additionally, future studies could explore how increased family interactions during crises contribute to a sense of belonging and stronger bonds between family members. For example, does shared time allow parents to better recognize their children’s strengths and challenges? Do family routines that emerge during crises enhance mindfulness levels and reduce parental stress? Such investigations could offer valuable insights into how intentional family time and daily interactions impact the quality of family connections, parents’ well-being, and the overall sense of togetherness within the family unit.
Declarations
Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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In the next few minutes, you will be asked to sit and practice mindfulness meditation. Find a comfortable place to sit, sit in an upright position, with your feet gently on the ground and your hands loose.
Take a few deep breaths and try to notice the position of your entire body… Notice whether you would like to change your position a little, so you are more comfortable. After you have found your position, we invite you to gently shut your eyes and attune to yourself from an open, curious, and affectionate point of view. This is precious quality time that you are invited to grant yourself with a soft breath.
Bell ring
Notice the air flowing through your body… every breath starts with an inhale, followed by an exhale. Pay attention to a few inhales and exhales (5)… Visualize the air flow as a wave… the breathing goes up and down in its natural rhythm… The breath, like a wave, goes up and down… notice the movement of the wave at this present moment… if it is consistent… Heavy… light… turbulent or relaxed?… There is no need to change or control the movement of the wave, simply observe and allow it to be as it is. Inhale… Exhale… Inhale… Exhale… I am here.
Notice where in the body you feel the breath and gently focus your attention on that place. Is it in your belly, in your chest, in your shoulders? Bring your attention to that place. Soft and gentle attention is now at the place in your body where you feel your breath… now, you may notice other sensations coming from that place. Maybe a gentle flow of movement… maybe warmth, chill… heaviness and stiffness, or lightness and delicacy. Remember, there is no need to change anything in the present moment. Just breathe, and rest within your breath.
Your breath happens on its own, with no need for any effort. Notice whether something has changed in the rhythm or intensity of the breath… Simply notice and observe the changes… Sensations in our body change frequently… in the meditation, we learn to acknowledge and accept the everchanging sensations, as these waves are natural to our existence. If you notice thoughts arriving, visualize yourself gently putting them on a cloud and let them float away… Bring your attention back to the present moment. There is no need to judge or feel angry at the distracting thoughts… simply let them be and let them go… softly bring your attention to the present moment.
Now, gently move your attention to the area of your face… notice the sensation in your face and breathe softly… what do you notice? (5 s). You may focus on your eyes and relax. Tension tends to build up in the eyes’ area, therefore we want to give it special attention. Relax your eyelids and let them softly rest in the eye socket… now, gently move your focus to your jaw and let your mouth slightly open up. Let your jaw relax softly… Notice whether there is a specific area of the face that is asking for your attention… Breathe into the entire face area and relax your muscles.
Now, gently move your attention to the center of your body… Notice the sensations around the chest area… the diaphragm, the belly… Notice specific sensations… They may be pleasant, they may be unpleasant… maybe a vague pain will arise… perhaps a feeling of relaxation… you may feel tingling or tickles… anything you may notice, pleasant or unpleasant, is present in the moment. Allow things to be as they are… breathe in and out, and relax…
Now, gently move your attention to your lower body… Bring your attention to your pelvis and along the length of your legs… notice your ankles… the point at which your feet touch the floor… what do you notice? You may notice sensations of tingles or tickles, pleasant sensations, or pain.… simply focus your attention and allow things to be as they are at the present moment… breathe and relax your muscles…
Now, gently move your attention to the heart. You may place one hand on the heart and the other on your belly. Notice the movement of your breath under the palms of your hands… now softly bring your attention and feel your heart. Notice the feelings and sensations that arise from your heart… observe everything that arises nonjudgmentally… adopt a soft and compassionate point of view… Whatever you notice is what is in the present moment… Become aware of the sensations that arise from your heart, the feeling of a gentle flow, or strain, calmness or stiffness… Anything that arises exists in the present moment…all things change constantly… simply observe it and breathe softly. Allow your breath to be an anchor that connects you to yourself and to the present moment. Listen to your heartbeat (5 s…).
Your breath is like an anchor that connects you to the present moment… allow yourself to feel gratitude for the present moment and to the ability to attune to yourself. Finish the meditation with a self-blessing and appreciation for taking the time to give yourself a safe space for an intimate encounter with yourself. Thank yourself for the persistence, thank your body for cooperating. I wish that the time I dedicated to sitting with myself will bear fruits of peace, wholesomeness and blessing that will manifest in each of my surroundings.
Soon, you will hear the bell ring… Take a few deep breaths… after the bell rings, gently stretch your body, open your eyes and slowly bring your consciousness back to the room.
Bell ring
Appendix 2
Daily Lockdown Activities and Familial Relationships Questionnaire
Question
Answer Options
Did you listen to the exercise yesterday evening?
Yes / No
Did you manage to listen to it until the end?
Yes / No
Were you able to stay attentive to the exercise?
Yes / No
Did you go outside today?
Yes / No
If you went out, for approximately how long?
Half an hour / Between half an hour to an hour / Between 1–2 h / Between 3–4 h / More than 4 h
Did you work today?
Yes, outside the home / Yes, from home / No
If you worked, for approximately how long?
Up to an hour / 1–2 h / 3–4 h / 5–8 h / More than 8 h
Were you in isolation today?
Yes / No
Did you read or listen to the news today?
Yes / No
If so, for approximately how long?
A few minutes / Up to an hour / 1–2 h / Between 2–4 h / Monitored the news throughout the day
Did you care for or spend time with your children today?
Yes / No
If so, for approximately how long?
Up to an hour / 1–2 h / 3–4 h / Throughout the day
Have your children returned to school or daycare?
No / They are not of eligible age / No, we chose not to send them / Yes, some of them
Was the time you spent with your children shared with other people?
Yes, with spouse / Yes, with grandparents / No / Not relevant
If so, how significant was the presence of the other person?
Very significant / Significant / Moderately significant / Slightly significant / Not at all
Select which activities you did with your children throughout the day (multiple answers allowed)
Games / Educational activities / Sports activities / Conversations / Watching TV together / Responding to basic needs
Did you have meaningful communication with others today?
Yes, primarily face-to-face / Yes, primarily through media channels / Both / I had no communication with others
Did communication with others help you today?
Yes, mainly face-to-face communication / Yes, virtual communication helped me / Yes, both helped / Communication did not help me
Who did you meet with today?
I didn’t meet anyone / I met only with household members / I met with extended family / I met with work colleagues / I met with a friend or neighbor
I had meaningful communication with my children today
Extremely / Very much / Moderately / Sometimes / A little / Very little / Not at all
I hugged my children today
Very often/ Often/Occasionally/ A little/ Very little/ Did not hug at all
Appendix 3
Abridged Versions of Study Questionnaires
Interpersonal Mindfulness in Teaching Scale (IMT)
1.
I found it difficult to stay focused on what was happening in the present moment today.
2.
I found myself doing things without paying attention today.
3.
I reacted too quickly to what my children said or did today.
4.
I was so occupied with other thoughts today that I didn’t really listen to my children.
5.
Today, when I was angry with my children, I noticed how I felt before taking action.
Experiences Questionnaire (EQ)
1.
I managed to slow down my thinking in stressful moments today.
2.
I did not easily get swept up in my thoughts and feelings today.
3.
I was kinder to myself today when things didn’t go well.
4.
I treated myself with kindness today.
5.
I observed unpleasant emotions without getting caught up in them today.
6.
Today, I was critical of my flaws and weaknesses.
7.
I was understanding and gentle with myself today, even when things went wrong.
8.
I tried to be understanding and patient with the parts of my personality that I don’t like.
9.
I tried to view my failures as part of being human.
10.
When I felt down today, I tended to obsess and dwell on everything that’s wrong.
Teacher-Student Relationship Questionnaire (TSR)
1.
Today, I tried to understand my children by imagining how things look from their perspective
2.
When I was angry with my child today, I tried to “put myself in their shoes.”
3.
Today, I tried to see my child’s side in a conflict before making a decision.
4.
I said something encouraging to my child today.
5.
I enjoyed helping my children today.
6.
I treated my children fairly today.
7.
I said something hurtful to my children today.
8.
I made my children angry today.
Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS)
1.
Stress
2.
Joy
3.
Irritability
4.
Guilt
5.
Pride
6.
Fear
7.
Enthusiasm
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