Top

Gepubliceerd in:

01-12-2004 | Original Article

Memory for actions: Item and relational information in categorized lists

Auteurs: Johannes Engelkamp, Kerstin H. Seiler, Hubert D. Zimmer

Gepubliceerd in: Psychological Research | Uitgave 1-2/2004

Abstract

Enacting action phrases in subject-performed tasks (SPTs) leads to better free recall than hearing or reading the same materials in verbal tasks (VTs). This enactment effect is usually explained by better item-specific information in SPTs than in VTs. The role of relational information is controversial. In the present paper, we will take the multiple recall approach to study the role of item and relational information in memory for actions by computing the number of item gains and the number of item losses over trials. This approach has previously been applied to lists of unrelated action phrases. We applied it to categorically related lists, also allowing a measure of relational information by clustering scores. It was found that SPTs produced more item gains than VTs. This finding confirmed the assumption that SPTs provide better item-specific information than VTs. The number of item losses did not differ between VTs and SPTs. This finding suggests that relational information is equally provided by VTs and SPTs. However, the organizational scores showed a more differentiated picture. Clustering was greater in SPTs than in VTs with randomly presented lists, but not with blocked lists. We suggested that these results, as well as other findings from the literature, could be explained by distinguishing automatic and strategic processes and the types of item associations that are addressed by these processes.

volgende artikel Forward masking of faces by spatially quantized random and structured masks: On the roles of wholistic configuration, local features, and spatial-frequency spectra in perceptual identification

It was demonstrated by Engelkamp and Seiler (2003) that order information (i.e., encoding of the accidental item neighborhood) is not the basis of the number of losses in unrelated lists.

In this analysis the third trial was not included because it is exactly the midpoint that divides the recall sequences into the two halves. However, the effect remains the same if we contrast the first two against the last three recall trials.

Nairne, Riegler, and Serra (1991) and Golly-Häring, and Engelkamp (2003) showed that order information is not the basis of categorical clustering.

In each VT condition, one participant was excluded from the analysis because one of their ARC scores was not defined due to division by zero. The corresponding ANOVA is therefore based on 70 participants.

Whether the strategic processes in VTs are helpful seems to depend also on the specific categorical structure of the list. In most studies, the categorical list structure was based on the categorical status of the objects (e.g., actions with fruits such as “eat the apple,” “peel the banana,” “pick up the peach,” etc.; e.g., Bäckman et al., 1986; Engelkamp & Zimmer, 1996; Norris & West, 1993). In some studies, list structure was based on categories of actions or on actions that belong to certain episodes (e.g., Zimmer & Engelkamp, 1989, Experiments 1 and 2), or that were based on scripts, i.e., on typical action sequences (Engelkamp & Zimmer, 2002). It seems, for example, as if VTs benefit somewhat more from script information than SPTs. A further factor that is differentially determining the organization processes comes to the fore if the lists are organized according to two structures. Koriat and Pearlman-Avnion (2003) used a list that could be organized according to conceptual categories (much like episodes) as well as according to motor categories, i.e., according to certain movement patterns (e.g., “to spread a cover over the car,” or “to cover a patient with a blanket”). In this case, VTs were organized more than SPTs according to conceptual categories and SPTs more than VTs according to motor categories.

Anderson, J. R. (1983). A spreading activation theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 261–295.

Bäckman, L., Nilsson, L. G., & Chalom, D. (1986). New evidence on the nature of the encoding of action events. Memory & Cognition, 14, 339–346.

Bousfield, W. A. (1953). The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology, 49, 229–240.

Burns, D. J. (1993). Item gains and item losses during hypermnesic recall: Implications for the item-specific-relational information distinction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 163–173.

Burns, D. J., & Gold, D. E. (1999). An analysis of item gains and losses in retroactive interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 978–985.

Burns, D. J., & Schoff, K. M. (1998). Slow and steady often ties the race: Effects of item-specific and relational processing on cumulative recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1041–1051.

Cohen, R. L. (1981). On the generality of some memory laws. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 22, 267–281.

Cohen, R. L. (1983). The effect of encoding variables on the free recall of words and action events. Memory & Cognition, 11, 575–582.

Cohen, R. L. (1985). On the generality of the laws of memory. In L. G. Nilsson & T. Archer (Eds.), Animal learning and human memory. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.

Einstein, G. O., & Hunt, R. R. (1980). Levels of processing and organization: Additive effects of individual item and relational processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 588–598.CrossRef

Engelkamp, J. (1986). Nouns and verbs in paired-associate learning: Instructional effects. Psychological Research, 48, 153–159.

Engelkamp, J. (1988). Modality-specific encoding and word class in verbal learning. In M. Gruneberg, P. Morris, & R. N. Snykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (Vol. 1, pp. 415–420). Chichester: Wiley.

Engelkamp, J. (1995). Visual imagery and enactment in memory of actions. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 227–240.PubMed

Engelkamp, J. (1998). Memory for actions. Hove: Psychology Press.

Engelkamp, J. & Seiler, K. (2003). Gains and losses in action memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 56A, 829–848.

Engelkamp, J., & Zimmer, H. D. (1996). Organization and recall in verbal tasks and in subject-performed tasks. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 8, 257–273.CrossRef

Engelkamp, J., & Zimmer, H. D. (2002). Free recall and organization as a function of varying relational encoding in action memory. Psychological Research, 66, 91–98.CrossRefPubMed

Engelkamp, J., Mohr, G., & Zimmer, H. D. (1991). Pair-relational encoding of performed nouns and verbs. Psychological Research, 53, 232–239.

Engelkamp, J., Jahn, P., & Seiler, K. H. (2003). The item-order hypothesis reconsidered: The role of order information in free recall. Psychological Research, 67, 280–290.PubMed

Engelkamp, J., Seiler, K. H., & Zimmer, H. D. (2003). Differential relational encoding of categorical information in memory for action events. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Gollin, E. S., & Sharps, M. J. (1988). Facilitation of free recall by categorical blocking depends on stimulus type. Memory & Cognition, 16, 539–544.

Golly-Häring, C., & Engelkamp, J. (2003). Categorical-relational and order-relational information in memory for subject-performed and experimenter-performed actions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 965–975.

Helstrup, T. (1987). One, two or three memories? A problem-solving approach to memory for performed acts. Acta Psychologica, 66, 37–68.CrossRef

Hunt, R. R., & Einstein, G. O. (1981). Relational and item-specific information in memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 497–514.

Hunt, R. R., & McDaniel, M. A. (1993). The enigma of organization and distinctiveness. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 421–445.CrossRef

Klein, S. B., Loftus, J., Kihlstrom, J. F., & Aseron, R. (1989). Effects of item-specific and relational information on hypermnesic recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1192–1197.

Knopf, M. (1991). Having shaved a kiwi fruit: Memory of unfamiliar subject-performed actions. Psychological Research, 53, 203–565.

Koriat, A., & Pearlman-Avnion, S. (2003). Memory organization of action events and its relationship to memory performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 435–454.CrossRef

Kormi-Nouri, R. (1995). The nature of memory for action events: An episodic integration view. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 337–363.

MacLeod, C. M., & Bassili, J. N. (1989). Are implicit and explicit tests differentially sensitive to item-specific versus relational information? In S. Lewandowsky & J. C. Dunn (Eds.), Implicit memory: Theoretical issues (pp. 159–172). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mandler, J. M. (1979). Categorical and schematic organization in memory. In C. R. Puff (Ed.) Memory, organization and structure (pp. 303–317). New York: Academic Press.

McDaniel, M. A., Moore, B. A., & Whiteman, H. L. (1998). Dynamic changes in hypermnesia across early and late tests: A relational/item-specific account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 173–185.

McDaniel, M. A., DeLosh, E. L., & Merritt, P. (2000). Order information and retrieval distinctiveness: Recall of common versus bizarre material. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 422–435.

McDaniel, M. A., Einstein, G. O., Dunay, P. K., & Cobb, R. E. (1986). Encoding difficulty and memory: Toward a unifying theory. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 645–656.

Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 227–234.PubMed

Mohr, G., Engelkamp, J., & Zimmer, H. D. (1989). Recall and recognition of self-performed acts. Psychological Research, 51, 181–187.

Mulligan, N. (2000). Perceptual interference at encoding enhances item-specific encoding and disrupts relational encoding: Evidence from multiple recall tests. Memory & Cognition, 28, 539–546.

Mulligan, N. (2001). Generation and hypermnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 436–450.

Nairne, J. S., Pusen, C., & Widener, R. J., Jr. (1985). Representation in the mental lexicon: Implications for theories of the generation effect. Memory & Cognition, 13, 183–191.

Nairne, J. S., Riegler, G. L., & Serra, M. (1991). Dissociative effects of generation on item and order retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 702–709.

Neely, J. H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, 226–254.

Nilsson, L. G., Nyberg, L., Klingberg, F., Åberg, C., Persson, J., & Roland, P. E. (2000). Activity in motor areas while remembering action events. Neuro Report, 11, 2199–2201.

Norris, M., & West, R. (1993). Activity memory and aging: The role of motor retrieval and strategic processing. Psychology and Aging, 8, 81–86.PubMed

Nyberg, L., Petersson, K. M., Nilsson, L. G., Sandblom, J., Åberg, C., & Ingvar, M. (2001). Reactivation of motor brain areas during explicit memory for actions. NeuroImage, 20, 1–8.

Olofsson, U. (1997). Win some, lose some: Hypermnesia for actions reflects increased item-specific processing. Memory & Cognition, 25, 797–800.

Perea, M., & Rosa, E. (2002). The effects of associative and semantic priming in the lexical decision task. Psychological Research, 66, 180–194.CrossRefPubMed

Roencker, D. L., Thompson, C. P., & Brown, S. C. (1971). Comparison of measures for the estimation of clustering in free recall. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 45–48.

Seiler, K., & Engelkamp, J. (2003). The role of item-specific information for the serial position curve in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 954–964.CrossRef

Serra, M., & Nairne, J. S. (1993). Design controversies and the generation effect: Support for an item-order hypothesis. Memory & Cognition, 21, 34–40.

Smith, R. E., & Hunt, R. R. (2000). The effects of distinctiveness require reinstatement of organization: The importance of intentional memory instructions. Journal of Memory and Language, 43, 431–446.CrossRef

Sternberg, R. J., & Tulving, E. (1977). The measurement of subjective organization in free recall. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 539–556.CrossRef

Wippich, W. (1980). Bildhaftigkeit und Organisation: Untersuchungen zu einer differenzierten Organisationshypothese. Darmstadt, Germany: Steinkopff.

Zimmer, H. D. (2001). Why do actions speak louder than words: Action memory as a variant of encoding manipulations or the result of a specific memory system? In H. D. Zimmer, et al. (Eds.), Memory for action: A distinct form of episodic memory? (pp. 151–198). New York: Oxford University Press.

Zimmer, H. D., & Engelkamp, J. (1989). Does motor encoding enhance relational information? Psychological Research, 51, 158–167.

Zimmer, H. D., & Engelkamp, J. (1999). Levels of processing effects in subject-performed tasks. Memory & Cognition, 27, 907–914.

Zimmer, H. D., & Mohr, M. (1986). Organisation und Organisierbarkeit von Verben und Substantiven bei einer verbal-semantischen bzw. ‘modalitätsspezifischen’ Lernweise (Arbeiten der Fachrichtung Psychologie Nr. 100). [Organisation and facilities of organisation of verbs and nouns after semantic or modality-specific encoding.] Saarbrücken, Germany: Universität des Saarlandes.

Zimmer, H. D., Helstrup, T., & Engelkamp, J. (2000). Pop-out into memory: A retrieval mechanism that is enhanced with the recall of subject-performed tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 26, 658–670.CrossRef

Titel: Memory for actions: Item and relational information in categorized lists
Auteurs: Johannes Engelkamp
Kerstin H. Seiler
Hubert D. Zimmer
Publicatiedatum: 01-12-2004
Uitgeverij: Springer-Verlag
Gepubliceerd in: Psychological Research / Uitgave 1-2/2004
Print ISSN: 0340-0727
Elektronisch ISSN: 1430-2772
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-003-0160-7

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Andere artikelen Uitgave 1-2/2004

Positive facial expressions are recognized faster than negative facial expressions, but why?

Effects of binding in the identification of objects

Stimulus-set location does not affect orthogonal stimulus-response compatibility

Interaction of color and geometric cues in depth perception: When does “red” mean “near”?

Sequence learning and sequential effects

Recognizing one’s own clapping: The role of temporal cues