Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in: Cognitive Therapy and Research 3/2014

01-06-2014 | Original Article

Measuring Attentional Bias to Threat: Reliability of Dot Probe and Eye Movement Indices

Auteurs: Stephanie Waechter, Andrea L. Nelson, Caitlin Wright, Ashley Hyatt, Jonathan Oakman

Gepubliceerd in: Cognitive Therapy and Research | Uitgave 3/2014

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Abstract

A variety of methodological paradigms, including dot probe and eye movement tasks, have been used to examine attentional biases to threat in anxiety disorders. Unfortunately, little attention has been devoted to the psychometric properties of measures from these paradigms. In the current study, participants selected for high and low social anxiety completed a dot probe and eye movement task using angry, disgust and happy facial expressions paired with neutral expressions. Results indicated that dot probe bias scores, eye movement first fixation indices, and eye movement proportions of viewing time in the first 1,500 ms had unacceptably low reliability. However, eye movement indices of attentional bias over the full 5,000 ms time course had excellent reliability. Individuals’ dot probe and eye movement biases were largely uncorrelated across the two tasks and demonstrated little relation with social anxiety scores. Implications for future research are discussed.
Voetnoten
1
Of course, negative reliabilities are theoretically impossible and are considered to be misestimates of zero.
 
2
NimStim actors used in the dot probe task were 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, and 41. Actors used in the eye movement task were 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 36, and 37.
 
3
Images were positioned above and below the fixation cross, rather than side-by-side, since previous research has found the following: (1) the reliability of the dot probe with stimuli side-by-side was poor (Staugaard 2009) and (2) the probability of looking at the left image first in eye movement tasks was high (e.g., .76, Nelson et al. 2010; manuscript in preparation), regardless of stimulus type.
 
4
Given that social desirability has been known to confound the results of attentional bias studies, correlations between SIAS scores and bias scores were computed again with SDS scores entered as a covariate. The pattern of results did not change.
 
5
We tested the theory that the negative reliabilities are driven by individual differences in fixating on the top image by generating semi-random data that simulated the ‘look up bias’ while preserving individual differences in this tendency. The simulation replicated the first fixation data pattern. The simulation is available from the first author on request.
 
6
One participant’s time course data could not be extracted due technical difficulties despite having completed the eye movement task.
 
7
Correlations between SIAS scores and eye movement indices were computed again with SDS scores entered as a covariate and the pattern of results did not change.
 
Literatuur
go back to reference Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(11), 1325–1335. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00039-1.PubMedCrossRef Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(11), 1325–1335. doi:10.​1016/​S0005-7967(03)00039-1.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the depression anxiety stress scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176–181. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.176.CrossRef Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the depression anxiety stress scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176–181. doi:10.​1037/​1040-3590.​10.​2.​176.CrossRef
go back to reference Asmundson, G. J. G., & Stein, M. B. (1994). Selective processing of social threat in patients with generalized social phobia: Evaluation using a dot-probe paradigm. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 8(2), 107–117. doi:10.1016/0887-6185(94)90009-4.CrossRef Asmundson, G. J. G., & Stein, M. B. (1994). Selective processing of social threat in patients with generalized social phobia: Evaluation using a dot-probe paradigm. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 8(2), 107–117. doi:10.​1016/​0887-6185(94)90009-4.CrossRef
go back to reference Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 1–24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1.PubMedCrossRef Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 1–24. doi:10.​1037/​0033-2909.​133.​1.​1.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Bishop, S. J. (2009). Trait anxiety and impoverished prefrontal control of attention. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 92–98. Bishop, S. J. (2009). Trait anxiety and impoverished prefrontal control of attention. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 92–98.
go back to reference Borgmann, K. W. U., Risko, E. F., Stolz, J. A., & Besner, D. (2007). Simon says: Reliability and the role of working memory and attentional control in the Simon task. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 313–319. doi:10.3758/BF03194070.CrossRef Borgmann, K. W. U., Risko, E. F., Stolz, J. A., & Besner, D. (2007). Simon says: Reliability and the role of working memory and attentional control in the Simon task. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 313–319. doi:10.​3758/​BF03194070.CrossRef
go back to reference Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Millar, N., Bonham-Carter, C., Fergusson, E., Jenkins, J., et al. (1997). Attentional biases for emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 25–42. doi:10.1080/026999397380014.CrossRef Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Millar, N., Bonham-Carter, C., Fergusson, E., Jenkins, J., et al. (1997). Attentional biases for emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 25–42. doi:10.​1080/​026999397380014.CrossRef
go back to reference Calvo, M. G., & Avero, P. (2005). Time course of attentional bias to emotional scenes in anxiety: Gaze direction and duration. Cognition and Emotion, 19(3), 433–451.PubMedCrossRef Calvo, M. G., & Avero, P. (2005). Time course of attentional bias to emotional scenes in anxiety: Gaze direction and duration. Cognition and Emotion, 19(3), 433–451.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In G. Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope, & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), r (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford Press. Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In G. Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope, & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), r (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford Press.
go back to reference Cooper, R. M., Bailey, J. E., Diaper, A., Stirland, R., Renton, L. E., Benton, C. P., et al. (2011). Effects of 7.5% CO2 inhalation on allocation of spatial attention to facial cues of emotional expression. Cognition and Emotion, 25(4), 626–638. doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.508887. Cooper, R. M., Bailey, J. E., Diaper, A., Stirland, R., Renton, L. E., Benton, C. P., et al. (2011). Effects of 7.5% CO2 inhalation on allocation of spatial attention to facial cues of emotional expression. Cognition and Emotion, 25(4), 626–638. doi:10.​1080/​02699931.​2010.​508887.
go back to reference Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
go back to reference Eastwood, J. D., Smilek, D., Oakman, J. M., Farvolden, P., van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., et al. (2005). Individuals with social phobia are biased to become aware of negative faces. Visual Cognition, 12(1), 159–179. doi:10.1080/13506280444000175.CrossRef Eastwood, J. D., Smilek, D., Oakman, J. M., Farvolden, P., van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., et al. (2005). Individuals with social phobia are biased to become aware of negative faces. Visual Cognition, 12(1), 159–179. doi:10.​1080/​1350628044400017​5.CrossRef
go back to reference Eide, P., Kemp, A., Silberstein, R. B., Nathan, P. J., & Stough, C. (2002). Test-retest reliability of the emotional stroop task: Examining the paradox of measurement change. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 136(5), 514–520. doi:10.1080/00223980209605547.CrossRef Eide, P., Kemp, A., Silberstein, R. B., Nathan, P. J., & Stough, C. (2002). Test-retest reliability of the emotional stroop task: Examining the paradox of measurement change. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 136(5), 514–520. doi:10.​1080/​0022398020960554​7.CrossRef
go back to reference Eysenck, M. W. (1997). Anxiety and cognition: A unified theory. Hove, England: Psychology Press/Erlbaum (UK) Taylor & Francis. Eysenck, M. W. (1997). Anxiety and cognition: A unified theory. Hove, England: Psychology Press/Erlbaum (UK) Taylor & Francis.
go back to reference Grös, D. F., Antony, M. M., Simms, L. J., & McCabe, R. E. (2007). Psychometric properties of the state-trait inventory for cognitive and somatic anxiety (STICSA): Comparison to the state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI). Psychological Assessment, 19(4), 369–381. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.19.4.369.PubMedCrossRef Grös, D. F., Antony, M. M., Simms, L. J., & McCabe, R. E. (2007). Psychometric properties of the state-trait inventory for cognitive and somatic anxiety (STICSA): Comparison to the state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI). Psychological Assessment, 19(4), 369–381. doi:10.​1037/​1040-3590.​19.​4.​369.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Haidt, J., Rozin, P., McCauley, C., & Imada, S. (1997). Body, psyche, and culture: The relationship of disgust to morality. Psychology and Developing Societies, 9, 107–131.CrossRef Haidt, J., Rozin, P., McCauley, C., & Imada, S. (1997). Body, psyche, and culture: The relationship of disgust to morality. Psychology and Developing Societies, 9, 107–131.CrossRef
go back to reference Henson, R. K. (2001). Understanding internal consistency reliability estimates: A conceptual primers on coefficient alpha. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 177–188. Henson, R. K. (2001). Understanding internal consistency reliability estimates: A conceptual primers on coefficient alpha. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 177–188.
go back to reference Hermans, D., Vansteenwegen, D., & Eelen, P. (1999). Eye movement registration as a continuous index of attention deployment: Data from a group of spider anxious students. Cognition and Emotion, 13(4), 419–434. doi:10.1080/026999399379249.CrossRef Hermans, D., Vansteenwegen, D., & Eelen, P. (1999). Eye movement registration as a continuous index of attention deployment: Data from a group of spider anxious students. Cognition and Emotion, 13(4), 419–434. doi:10.​1080/​026999399379249.CrossRef
go back to reference Hope, D. A., Rapee, R. M., Heimberg, R. G., & Dombeck, M. J. (1990). Representations of the self in social phobia: Vulnerability to social threat. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(2), 177–189. doi:10.1007/BF01176208.CrossRef Hope, D. A., Rapee, R. M., Heimberg, R. G., & Dombeck, M. J. (1990). Representations of the self in social phobia: Vulnerability to social threat. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(2), 177–189. doi:10.​1007/​BF01176208.CrossRef
go back to reference Horwitz, S. K., & Horwitz, I. B. (2012). Small is beautiful: Implications of reliability and statistical power for testing the efficacy of HR interventions. Human Resource Management, 51, 143–160. doi:10.1002/hrm.20465.CrossRef Horwitz, S. K., & Horwitz, I. B. (2012). Small is beautiful: Implications of reliability and statistical power for testing the efficacy of HR interventions. Human Resource Management, 51, 143–160. doi:10.​1002/​hrm.​20465.CrossRef
go back to reference Klumpp, H., & Amir, N. (2009). Examination of vigilance and disengagement of threat in social anxiety with a probe detection task. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 22(3), 283–296. doi:10.1080/10615800802449602.CrossRef Klumpp, H., & Amir, N. (2009). Examination of vigilance and disengagement of threat in social anxiety with a probe detection task. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 22(3), 283–296. doi:10.​1080/​1061580080244960​2.CrossRef
go back to reference Levens, S. M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2010). Updating positive and negative stimuli in working memory in depression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 654. doi:10.1037/a0020283.CrossRef Levens, S. M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2010). Updating positive and negative stimuli in working memory in depression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 654. doi:10.​1037/​a0020283.CrossRef
go back to reference Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U.PubMedCrossRef Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. doi:10.​1016/​0005-7967(94)00075-U.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference MacLeod, J. W., Lawrence, M. A., McConnell, M. M., Eskes, G. A., Klein, R. M., & Shore, D. I. (2010). Appraising the ANT: Psychometric and theoretical considerations of the attention network test. Neuropsychology, 24(5), 637–651. doi:10.1037/a0019803.PubMedCrossRef MacLeod, J. W., Lawrence, M. A., McConnell, M. M., Eskes, G. A., Klein, R. M., & Shore, D. I. (2010). Appraising the ANT: Psychometric and theoretical considerations of the attention network test. Neuropsychology, 24(5), 637–651. doi:10.​1037/​a0019803.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Mansell, W., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., & Chen, Y. (2002). Attention to positive and negative social-evaluative words: Investigating the effects of social anxiety, trait anxiety and social threat. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 15(1), 19–29. doi:10.1080/10615800290007263.CrossRef Mansell, W., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., & Chen, Y. (2002). Attention to positive and negative social-evaluative words: Investigating the effects of social anxiety, trait anxiety and social threat. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 15(1), 19–29. doi:10.​1080/​1061580029000726​3.CrossRef
go back to reference Murphy, K. R., & Davidshofer, C. O. (2005). Psychological testing: Principles and testing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Murphy, K. R., & Davidshofer, C. O. (2005). Psychological testing: Principles and testing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
go back to reference Nelson, A., Quigley, L., Carriere, J., Purdon, C., & Smilek, D. (2010, June). The role of state and trait-anxiety on the time-course of selective attention towards emotional images. Boston, Massachusetts: Poster presented at the 6th World Congress of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. Nelson, A., Quigley, L., Carriere, J., Purdon, C., & Smilek, D. (2010, June). The role of state and trait-anxiety on the time-course of selective attention towards emotional images. Boston, Massachusetts: Poster presented at the 6th World Congress of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies.
go back to reference Ononaiye, M. S. P., Turpin, G., & Reidy, J. G. (2007). Attentional bias in social anxiety: Manipulation of stimulus duration and social-evaluative anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31(6), 727–740. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9096-8.CrossRef Ononaiye, M. S. P., Turpin, G., & Reidy, J. G. (2007). Attentional bias in social anxiety: Manipulation of stimulus duration and social-evaluative anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31(6), 727–740. doi:10.​1007/​s10608-006-9096-8.CrossRef
go back to reference Ree, M. J., French, D., MacLeod, C., & Locke, V. (2008). Distinguishing cognitive and somatic dimensions of state and trait anxiety: Development and validation of the state-trait inventory for cognitive and somatic anxiety (STICSA). Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36(3), 313–332. doi:10.1017/S1352465808004232.CrossRef Ree, M. J., French, D., MacLeod, C., & Locke, V. (2008). Distinguishing cognitive and somatic dimensions of state and trait anxiety: Development and validation of the state-trait inventory for cognitive and somatic anxiety (STICSA). Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36(3), 313–332. doi:10.​1017/​S135246580800423​2.CrossRef
go back to reference Rinck, M., & Becker, E. S. (2006). Spider fearful individuals attend to threat, then quickly avoid it: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(2), 231. Rinck, M., & Becker, E. S. (2006). Spider fearful individuals attend to threat, then quickly avoid it: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(2), 231.
go back to reference Sattler, J. M. (2008). Assessment of children: Cognitive foundations. La Mesa, CA: Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc. Sattler, J. M. (2008). Assessment of children: Cognitive foundations. La Mesa, CA: Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.
go back to reference Schmidt, N. B., Richey, J. A., Buckner, J. D., & Timpano, K. R. (2009). Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 5–14. doi:10.1037/a0013643.PubMedCrossRef Schmidt, N. B., Richey, J. A., Buckner, J. D., & Timpano, K. R. (2009). Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 5–14. doi:10.​1037/​a0013643.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Staugaard, S. (2009). Reliability of two versions of the dot-probe task using photographic faces. Psychology Science, 51(3), 339–350. Staugaard, S. (2009). Reliability of two versions of the dot-probe task using photographic faces. Psychology Science, 51(3), 339–350.
go back to reference Staugaard, S. R., & Rosenberg, N. K. (2011). Processing of emotional faces in social phobia. Mental Illness, 3(1), 14–20. Staugaard, S. R., & Rosenberg, N. K. (2011). Processing of emotional faces in social phobia. Mental Illness, 3(1), 14–20.
go back to reference Stevens, S., Rist, F., & Gerlach, A. L. (2009). Influence of alcohol on the processing of emotional facial expressions in individuals with social phobia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(2), 125–140. doi:10.1348/014466508X368856.PubMedCrossRef Stevens, S., Rist, F., & Gerlach, A. L. (2009). Influence of alcohol on the processing of emotional facial expressions in individuals with social phobia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(2), 125–140. doi:10.​1348/​014466508X368856​.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Stolz, J. A., Besner, D., & Carr, T. H. (2005). Implications of measure of reliability for theories of priming: Activity in semantic memory is inherently noisy and uncoordinated. Visual Cognition, 12, 284–336. doi:10.1080/13506280444000030. Stolz, J. A., Besner, D., & Carr, T. H. (2005). Implications of measure of reliability for theories of priming: Activity in semantic memory is inherently noisy and uncoordinated. Visual Cognition, 12, 284–336. doi:10.​1080/​1350628044400003​0.
go back to reference Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., et al. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168(3), 242–249.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., et al. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168(3), 242–249.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Vernon, P. A. (1983). Speed of information processing and general intelligence. Intelligence, 7(1), 53–70. Vernon, P. A. (1983). Speed of information processing and general intelligence. Intelligence, 7(1), 53–70.
go back to reference Weierich, M. R., Treat, T. A., & Hollingworth, A. (2008). Theories and measurement of visual attentional processing in anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 22(6), 985–1018. Weierich, M. R., Treat, T. A., & Hollingworth, A. (2008). Theories and measurement of visual attentional processing in anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 22(6), 985–1018.
go back to reference Wieser, M. J., Pauli, P., Weyers, P., Alpers, G. W., & Mühlberger, A. (2009b). Fear of negative evaluation and the hypervigilance-avoidance hypothesis: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Neural Transmission, 116(6), 717–723. doi:10.1007/s00702-008-0101-0.PubMedCrossRef Wieser, M. J., Pauli, P., Weyers, P., Alpers, G. W., & Mühlberger, A. (2009b). Fear of negative evaluation and the hypervigilance-avoidance hypothesis: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Neural Transmission, 116(6), 717–723. doi:10.​1007/​s00702-008-0101-0.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Yiend, J., & Mathews, A. (2005). In A. Wenzel, D. C. Rubin (Eds.), Selective attention tasks in clinical research (pp. 97–117). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10870-006. Yiend, J., & Mathews, A. (2005). In A. Wenzel, D. C. Rubin (Eds.), Selective attention tasks in clinical research (pp. 97–117). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.​1037/​10870-006.
Metagegevens
Titel
Measuring Attentional Bias to Threat: Reliability of Dot Probe and Eye Movement Indices
Auteurs
Stephanie Waechter
Andrea L. Nelson
Caitlin Wright
Ashley Hyatt
Jonathan Oakman
Publicatiedatum
01-06-2014
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Cognitive Therapy and Research / Uitgave 3/2014
Print ISSN: 0147-5916
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-2819
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9588-2

Andere artikelen Uitgave 3/2014

Cognitive Therapy and Research 3/2014 Naar de uitgave