Top

Gepubliceerd in:

2021 | OriginalPaper | Hoofdstuk

1. Maternal adaptation to pregnancy

Auteurs : L. L. H. Peeters, MD, PhD, P. W. de Leeuw, MD, PhD, E. D. Post Uiterweer, MD, PhD

Gepubliceerd in: Pathophysiology of pregnancy complications

Uitgeverij: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Abstract

The first chapter of this book describes the most important maternal adaptations to pregnancy. In the following three chapters, that information is used as a reference for the pathophysiology of common pregnancy disorders, that may develop in seemingly healthy women (chap. 2), in women with a pre-existent chronic disorder that predisposes to these pregnancy complications (chap. 3) and in women with a preexistent chronic disorder that does not directly predispose to these pregnancy complications (chap. 4). Finally, chapter 5 discusses how the information on pathophysiology of pregnancy complications can be translated into strategies that enable early detection and/or prevention of these complications.

volgende hoofdstuk Pathophysiology of pregnancy complications in healthy women

Aardenburg R, Spaanderman MEA, Ekhart TH, et al. Low plasma volume following pregnancy complicated by pre-eclampsia predisposes to hypertensive disease in a next pregnancy. Brit J Obstet Gynaecol. 2003;110:1001–6.CrossRef

Ander SE, Diamond MS, Coyne CB. Immune responses at the maternal-fetal interface. Sci Immunol. 2019;4. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciimmunol.aat6114.

Aplin JD, Ruane PT. Embryo-epithelium interactions during implantation at a glance. J Cell Sci. 2017;130:15–22.PubMedCrossRef

Avsar AF, Keskin HL. Haemorrhoids during pregnancy. J Obstet Gynecol. 2010;30:231–7.CrossRef

Baeyens L, et al. β-cell adaptations in pregnancy. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2016;18(suppl 1):63–70.

Bates SM. Pregnancy-associated venous thromboembolism: prevention and treatment. Semin Hematol. 2011;48:271–84.PubMedCrossRef

Battaglia FC, Mechia G. Fetal nutrition. Ann Rev Nutr. 1988;8:43–61.CrossRef

Battaglia FC, Meschia G. Principal substrates of fetal metabolism. Physiol Rev. 1978;58:499–527.PubMedCrossRef

Battaglia FC, Meschia G. Foetal and placental metabolisms: their interrelationships and impact on maternal metabolism. Proc Nutr Soc. 1981;40:99–113.PubMedCrossRef

Berlin DA, Bakker J. Understanding venous return. Intensive Care Med. 2014;40:1564–6.PubMedCrossRef

Bertelli E and Bendayan M. Association between endocrine pancreas and ductal system. More than an epiphenomenon of endocrine differentiation and development? J Histochem Cytochem. 2005;53:1071–86.

Blaszczyk J, et al. Adaptive changes in spatiotemporal gait characteristics in women during pregnancy. Gait and Posture. 2016;43:160–4.PubMedCrossRef

Bobrowski RA. Pulmonary physiology in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2010;53:285–300.PubMedCrossRef

Body C, Christie J. Gastrointestinal diseases in pregnancy: Review. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2016;45:267–83.PubMedCrossRef

Bonney EA. Immune regulation in pregnancy. A matter of perspective? Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am. 2016;43:679–98.

Brenner B. Haemostatic changes in pregnancy. Thromb Res. 2004;114:409–14.PubMedCrossRef

Brunton PJ. Endogenous opioid signalling in the brain during pregnancy and lactation. Cell Tissue Res. 2019;375:69–83.PubMedCrossRef

Burton GJ, Hempstock J, Jauniaux E. Nutrition of the human fetus during the first trimester. A review. Placenta. 2001;22 Suppl. A Trophoblast Research 15:S70–6.

Burton GJ, Jauniaux E, Charnock-Jones DS. The influence of the intrauterine environment on human placental development. Int J Dev Biol. 2010;54:303–11.PubMedCrossRef

Butte NF. Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in pregnancy: normal compared with gestational diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(5 suppl.):1256S–61S.PubMedCrossRef

Butte NF, Hopkinson JM. Body composition changes during lactation are highly variable among women. J Nutr. 1998;128:285–381S.PubMedCrossRef

Cakmak B, Ribeiro AP, Inanir A. Postural balance and the risk of falling during pregnancy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29:1623–5.PubMed

Cahill AG, Tuuli MG. Labor in 2013: the new frontier. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 209: 531-4.

Caniggia I, Winter JL. Hypoxia inducible factor-1; oxygen regulation of trophoblast differentiation in normal and pre-eclamptic pregnancies – a review. Placenta. 2002;23(supplement A) Trophoblast Research 16:S47–57.

Carvalho LN, et al. Mesangial cell culture from pregnant rats display reduced reactivity to angiotensin II: the role of relaxin, nitric oxide and AT2 receptor. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2012;30:1456–64.PubMedCrossRef

Challis JRG, Matthews SG, Gibb W, Lye SJ. Endocrine and paracrine regulation of birth at term and preterm. Endocr Rev. 2000;21:514–50.PubMed

Chamley LW, Holland OJ, Chen Q et al. Review: where is the maternofetal interface? Placenta. 2014;35(suppl. A) Trophoblast Research 28:S74–80.

Chang S-R, Chen K-H, Ho H-N, et al. Depressive symptoms, pain, and sexual dysfunction over the first year following vaginal or cesarean delivery: a prospective longitudinal study. Int J Nurs Stud. 2015;52:1433–44.PubMedCrossRef

Cheung KL, Lafayette RA. Renal physiology of pregnancy. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2013;20:209–14.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Chung E, Leinwand LA. Pregnancy as a cardiac stress model. Cardiovasc Res. 2014;101:561–70.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Clark SL, et al. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;161: 1439–42.

Cong J, Yang X, Zhang Y, et al. Quantitative analysis of left atrial volume and function during normotensive and preeclamptic pregnancy: a real-time three-dimensional echocardiography study. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2015;31:805–12.PubMedCrossRef

Conrad KP. Emerging role of relaxin in the maternal adaptations to normal pregnancy: Implications for preeclampsia. Semin Nephrol. 2011;31:15–32.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Conrad KP, Davison JM. The renal circulation in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia. Is there a place for relaxin? Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2014;306:F1121–35.

Conrad KP, Shroff SG. Effects of relaxin on arterial dilation, remodeling and mechanical properties. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2011;13:409–20.PubMedCrossRef

Conrad KP, Graham GM, Chi YY, et al. Potential influence of the corpus luteum on circulating reproductive and volume regulatory hormones, angiogenic and immunoregulatory factors in pregnant women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2019;317:E677–85.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Cooklin AR, et al. Maternal physical health symptoms in the first 8 weeks postpartum among primiparous Australian women. Birth. 2015;42:254–60.PubMedCrossRef

Costa MA. The endocrine function of the human placenta: an overview. Reprod Biomed Online. 2016;32:14–43.PubMedCrossRef

Craciunas L, Gallos I, Chu J, et al. Conventional and modern markers of endometrial receptivity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 2019;25:202–23.PubMedCrossRef

Davison JM, Vallotton MB, Lindheimer MD. Plasma osmolality and urinary concentration and dilution during and after pregnancy: evidence that lateral recumbency inhibits maximal urinary concetration ability. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1981;88:472–9.PubMedCrossRef

De Bari O, et al. Cholesterol, cholelithiasis in pregnant women: pathogenesis, prevention and treatment. Ann Hepatol. 2014;13:728–45.PubMedCrossRef

De Haas S, Ghossein-Doha C, Van Kuijk SMJ, et al. Physiological adaptation of maternal plasma volume during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2017;49:177–87.PubMedCrossRef

Deryabin P, Griukova A, Nikolsky N et al. The link between endometrial stromal cell senescence and decidualization in female fertility: the art of balance. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-019-03374-0.

Druckmann R, Druckmann M. Progesterone and the immunology of pregnancy. J Steroid Biochem Mol. 2005;97:389–96.CrossRef

Duvekot JJ, et al. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169: 1382–92.

Duvekot JJ and Peeters LL. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1994;49: S1–14.

Erlebacher A. Immunology of the maternal-fetal interface. Annu Rev Immunol. 2013;31:387–411.PubMedCrossRef

Faas MM, De Vos P. Uterine NK cells and macrophages in pregnancy. Placenta. 2017;56:44–52.PubMedCrossRef

Feldt-Rasmussen U, Mathiesen ER. Endocrine disorders in pregnancy: Physiological and hormonal aspects of pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;25:875–84.PubMedCrossRef

Forsum E, Löf M. Energy metabolism during human pregnancy. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2007;27:277–92.PubMedCrossRef

Foti T, et al. A biomechanical analysis of gait during pregnancy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2000;82:625–32.PubMedCrossRef

Fournier T, Guibourdenche J, Evain-Brion D. Review: hCGs: different sources of production, different glycoforms and functions. Placenta. 2015:36 (suppl. 1) vol. 29:S60–5.

Fowden AL et al. Review: endocrine regulation of placental phenotype. Placenta. 2015;(suppl. 1) Trophoblast Research vol 29:S50–9.

Galea LAM, Wainwright SR, Roes MM, et al. Sex, hormones and neurogenesis in the hippocampus: hormonal modulation of neurogenesis and potential functional implications. J Neuroendocrinol. 2013;25:1039–61.PubMedCrossRef

Garlanda C, Maina V, Martinez de la Torre Y, et al. Inflammatory reaction and implantation: the new entries PTX3 and D6. Placenta. 2008;29:S129–34.

Gellersen B, Brosens JJ. Cyclic decidualization of the human endometrium in reproductive health and failure. Endocr. Rev. 2014;35:851–905.PubMedCrossRef

Gellersen B, et al. Decidualization of the human endometrium: Mechanisms, functions and clinical perspectives. Semin Reprod Med. 2007;25:445–53.PubMedCrossRef

Gelman S. Venous function and central venous pressure. Anesthesiology. 2008;108:735–48.PubMedCrossRef

Geraghty LN, Pomeranz MK. Physiologic changes and dermatoses of pregnancy. Int J Dermatol. 2011;50:771–82.PubMedCrossRef

Hadden DR, McLaughlin C. Normal and abnormal metabolism during pregnancy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:66–71.PubMedCrossRef

Halligan A, et al. J Hypertens. 1993;11: 869–73.

Hanson L, VandeVusse L. Supporting labor progress towards physiologic birth. J Perinat Neonat Nurs. 2014;28:101–7.CrossRef

Harris LK. IFPA Gabor than award lecture: transformation of the spiral arteries in human pregnancy: key events in the remodelling timeline. Placenta. 2011;32:S134–58.CrossRef

Harris LK, Benagiano M, D’Elios, et al. Placental bed research: II. Functional and immunological investigations of the placental bed. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2019;221:457–69.

Hegewald MJ, et al. Respiratory physiology in pregnancy. Clin Chest Med. 2011;32:1–13.PubMedCrossRef

Hellgren M. Hemostasis during normal pregnancy and puerperium. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2003;29:125–30.PubMedCrossRef

Huppertz B, Weiss G, Moser G. Trophoblast invasion and oxygenation of the placenta: measurements versus presumptions. J Reprod Immunol. 2014;101–102:74–9.PubMedCrossRef

Hutchings G, Williams O, Cretoiu D, Ciontea SM. Myometrial interstitial cells and the coordination of myometrial contractility. J Cell Mol Med. 2009;13:4268–82.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

James JL, Saghian R, Perwick R, et al. Trophoblastic plugs: impact on uteroplacental haemodynamic and spiral artery remodelling. Hum Reprod. 2018;33:1430–41.PubMedCrossRef

Jensen D. Mechanical ventilation constraints during incremental cycle exercise in human pregnancy: implications for respiratory sensation. J Physiol. 2008;586:4735–50.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Jeyabalan A, Lain KY. Anatomic and functional changes of the upper urinary tract during pregnancy. Urol Clin N Am. 2007;34:1–6.CrossRef

Jonas W, Woodside B. Physiological mechanisms, behavioral and psychological factors influencing the transfer of milk from mothers to their young. Horm Behav. 2016;77:167–81.PubMedCrossRef

Kamel RM. The onset of human parturition. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2010;281:975–82.PubMedCrossRef

Keelan JA. Intrauterine inflammatory activation, functional progesterone withdrawal and the timing of term and preterm birth. J Reprod Immunol. 2018;125:89–99.PubMedCrossRef

Kong S, Zhou C, Bao H, et al. Epigenetic control of embryo-uterine crosstalk at peri-implantation. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2019;76:4813–28.PubMedCrossRef

Kühnert M, et al. Changes in the lymphocyte subsets during normal pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1998;76:147–51.PubMedCrossRef

Lacroix M, et al. Maternal/fetal determinants of insulin resistance in women during pregnancy and in offspring over life. Curr Diab Rep. 2013;13:238–44.PubMedCrossRef

Lammert E, Thorn P. The role of the island niche on beta cell structure and function. J Mol Biol. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2019.10.032.

Larqué E, et al. Placental regulation of fetal nutrient supply. Curr Opin Clin Metab Care. 2013;16:292–7.CrossRef

Leo CH, Jelinic M, Ng HH, Marshall SA, et al. Vascular actions of relaxin: nitric oxide and beyond (review article). Brit J Pharmacol. 2017;174:1002–14.CrossRef

Li X et al. Modeling childbirth: elucidating the mechanisms of labor. WIREs Syst Biol Med. 2010:460–470.

Liao JB, Buhimschi CS, Norwitz ER. Normal labor: mechanism and duration. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am. 2005;32:145–64.CrossRef

Licht P, Fluhr H, Neuwinger J, et al. Is human chorionic gonadotropin directly involved in the regulation of human implantation? Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2007;269:85–92.PubMedCrossRef

Lindheimer MD, Barron WM, Davison JM. Osmoregulation of thirst and vasopressin release in pregnancy. Am J Physiol. 1989;257:F159–69.PubMed

Liu H, Huang X, Mor G, Liao A. Epigenetic midifications in the decidualization and endometrial receptivity. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2020;77:2091–101.PubMedCrossRef

Lockwood CJ. Pregnancy-associated changes in the hemostatic system. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2006;49:838–43.CrossRef

London V, et al. Hyperemesis gravidarum: a review of recent literature. Pharmacol. 2017;100:161–71.CrossRef

Lonstein JS, Maguire J, Meinlschmidt G, et al. Emotion and mood adaptations in the peripartum female: Complementary contributions of GABA and oxytocin. J Neuroendocrinol. 2014;26:649–64.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Lotgering FK, Van Doorn M, Struijk PC, et al. Maximal aerobic exercise in pregnant women: Heart rate, O₂ consumption, CO₂ production and ventilation. J Appl Physiol. 1991;70:1016–23.PubMedCrossRef

Lumbers ER, Pringle KG. Roles of the circulating renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in human pregnancy. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2014;306:R91–101.PubMedCrossRef

Macias H, Hinck L. Mammary gland development. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol. 2012;1:533–57.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Marques NR, et al. Passive leg raising during pregnancy. Am J Perinatol. 2015;32:393–8.PubMedCrossRef

Melchiorre K, Sharma R, Thilaganathan B. Cardiac structure and function in normal pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynaecol. 2012;24:413–21.CrossRef

Melchiorre K, Sharma R, Khalil A, Thilaganathan B. Maternal cardiovascular function in normal pregnancy; evidence of maladaptation to chronic volume overload. Hypertension. 2016;67:754–62.PubMedCrossRef

Mendelson CR, Montalbano AP, Gao L. Fetal-to-maternal signaling in the timing of birth. J Steroid Biochem & Mol Biol. 2017;170:19–27.CrossRef

Menon R, Mesiano S, Taylor RN. Programmed fetal membrane senescence and exosome-mediated signaling: a mechanism associated with timing of human parturition. Front Endocrinol. 2017;8:196. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2017.00196.

Menon R, Bonney EA, Condon J, et al. Novel concepts on pregnancy clocks and alarms: redundancy and synergy in human parturition. Hum Reprod Update. 2016;22:535–60.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Meschia G. Fetal oxygenation and maternal ventilation. Clin Chest Med. 2011;32:15–9.PubMedCrossRef

Moffett A, Colucci F. Uterine NK cells: active regulators at the maternal-fetal interface. J Clin Invest. 2014;124:1872–9.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Moses-Kolko EL, Horner MS, Phillips ML, et al. In search of neural endophenotypes of postpartum psychopathology and disrupted maternal caregiving. J Neuroendocrinol. 2014;26:665–84.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Murthi P. Review: placental homeobox genes and their role in regulating fetal growth. Placenta. 2014;28:S46–50.CrossRef

Nama V, Antonios TF, Onwude J, et al. Mid-pregnancy drop in normal pregnancy: myth or reality? J Hypertens. 2011;29:763–8.PubMedCrossRef

Nascimento SL, et al. Physical exercise during pregnancy: a systematic review. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2012;24:387–94.PubMedCrossRef

Nelson DM. How the placenta affects your life, from womb to tomb. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;213:S12–3.PubMedCrossRef

Norwitz ER, Bonney EA, Snegovskikh VV, et al. Molecular regulation of parturition: the role of the decidual clock. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2015;5:1–21.CrossRef

Odutayo A, Hladunewich M. Obstetric nephrology: Renal hemodynamics and metabolic physiology in normal pregnancy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7:2073–80.PubMedCrossRef

Okada H, Tsuzuki T, Murata H. Decidualization of the human endometrium. Reprod Med Biol. 2018;17:220–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Pang CC. Autonomic control of the venous system in health and disease; Effects of drugs. Pharmacol Ther. 2001;90:179–230.PubMedCrossRef

Panicker VV, Riyaz N, Balachandran PK. A clinical study of cutaneous changes in pregnancy. J Epidemiol Global Health. 2017;7:63–70.CrossRef

Racicot K, et al. Understanding the complexity of the immune system during pregnancy. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2014;72:107–16.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Ramin KD, et al. Disease of the gallbladder and pancreas in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2001;28:571–80.PubMedCrossRef

Ravanos K, Dagklis T, Petousis S, et al. Factors implicated in the initiation of human parturition in term and preterm labor: a review. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2015;31:679–83.PubMedCrossRef

Redman CWG, Dragovic DS, Gardiner RA, et al. Review: does size matter? Placental debris and the pathophysiology of pre-eclampsia. Placenta. 2012;(suppl. A) Trophoblast Research 26:548–54.

Reyes LM, Usselman CW, Davenport MH, Steinback CD. Sympathetic nervous system regulation in human normotensive and hypertensive pregnancies. Hypertension. 2018;71:793–803.PubMedCrossRef

Robson SC, et al. Am J Physiol. 1989;256: H1060–5.

Romero R, et al. Preterm labor: one syndrome, many causes. Science. 2014;345:760–5.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Roth CJ, HaeussnerE, RuebelmanT et al. Dynamic modeling of uteroplacental blood flow in IUGR indicates vortices and elevated pressure in the intervillous space – a pilot study. Sci Rep (nature research). 2017;7:40771.

Saltzman W, Maestripieri D. The neuroendocrinology of primate maternal behavior. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2011;35:1192–204.PubMedCrossRef

Sanghavi M, Rutherford JD. Cardiovascular physiology of pregnancy. Circulation. 2014;130:1003–8.PubMedCrossRef

Savu O, et al. Morphologic and functional adaptation of the maternal heart during pregnancy. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;5:289–97.PubMedCrossRef

Schauberger CW, et al. Peripheral joint laxity increases during pregnancy but does not correlate with serum relaxin levels. Am J Obstet gynecol. 1996;174:667–71.PubMedCrossRef

Schrier RW, Niederberger M. Paradoxes of body fluid volume regulation in Health and Disease – a unifying hypothesis. West J Med. 1994;161:293–408.

Schrier RW, Ohara M. Dilemmas in human and rat pregnancy: proposed mechanisms relating to arterial vasodilation. J Neuroendocrinol. 2010;22:400–6.PubMedCrossRef

Schwartsburd P. Insulin resistance is a two-sided mechanism acting under opposite catabolic and anabolic conditions. Med Hypotheses. 2016;89:8–10.PubMedCrossRef

Sharma S, Godbole G, Modi D. Decidual control of trophoblast invasion. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2016;75:341–50.PubMedCrossRef

Shin GH, et al. Pregnancy and postpartum bowel changes: constipation and fecal incontinence. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015;110:521–9.PubMedCrossRef

Shiri Rm Coggon D, Falah-Hassani K. Exercise for the prevention of low back and pelvic girdle pain in pregnancy: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Pain. 2018;22:19–27.

Solano ME. Decidual immune cells: guardians of human pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2019;60:3–16.PubMedCrossRef

Spaanderman MEA, et al. Cardiac output increases independently of basal metabolic rate in early human pregnancy. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2000;278:H1585–8.PubMedCrossRef

Spaanderman M, et al. Preeclampsia and maladaptation to pregnancy: A role for atrial natriuretic peptide? Kidney Int. 2001;60:1397–406.PubMedCrossRef

Stolzenberg DS, Champagne FA. Hormonal and non-hormonal bases of maternal behavior: the role of experience and epigenetic mechanisms. Horm Behav. 2016;77:204–10.PubMedCrossRef

Sunitha M, Chandrasekharappa S, Brid SV. Electrocardiographic QRS axis, Q-wave and T-wave changes in the 2^nd and 3^rd trimester of normal pregnancy. J Clin Diagn Res. 2014;8:BC 17–21.

Tan EK, Tan EL, Med M. Alterations in physiology and anatomy during pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2013;27:791–802.PubMedCrossRef

Tessier DR, Yockell-Lelièvre J, Gruslin A. Uterine spiral artery remodeling: the role of uterine natural killer cells and extravillous trophoblasts in normal and high-risk human pregnancies. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2015;74:1–11.PubMedCrossRef

Theofanakis C, Drakakis P, Besharat A, Loutradis D. Human chorionic gonadotrophin: the pregnancy hormone and more. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18(1059):8. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18051059.

Tkachenko O, Shchekochikhin D, Schrier RW. Hormones and hemodynamics in pregnancy (review). Int J Endocrinol Metab. 2014;12:e14098.

Tyler K. Physiological skin changes during pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2015;58:119–24.PubMedCrossRef

Vannuccini S, Bocchi C, Severi FM, et al. Endocrinology of human parturition. Ann Endocrinol. 2016;77:105–13.CrossRef

Veenendaal MVE, Van Abeelen AFM, Painter RC, et al. Consequences of hyperemesis gravidarum for offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brit J Obstet Gynaecol. 2011;118:1302–13.CrossRef

Vejrazkova D, et al. Steroids and insulin resistance. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014;139:122–9.PubMedCrossRef

Vink JY, Qin S, Brock CO, et al. A new paradigm for the role of smooth muscle cells in the human cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;215(478):e1–11.

Von Rango U. Fetal tolerance in human pregnancy – a crucial balance between acceptance and limitation of trophoblast invasion. Immunol Lett. 2008;115:21–32.CrossRef

Weimar CH, Post Uiterweer ED, Teklenburg G, et al. In-vitro model systems for the study of human embryo-endometrial interactions. Reprod Biomed Online. 2013;27:461–76.PubMedCrossRef

Weiss G, Sundl M, Glasner A, et al. The trophoblast plug during early pregnancy: a deeper insight. Histochem Cell Biol. 2016;146:749–56.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Young RC. Synchronization of regional contractions of human labor; direct effects of region size and tissue excitability. J Biomech. 2015;48:1614–9.PubMedCrossRef

Zeng Z, et al. Metabolic adaptations in pregnancy. Ann Nutr Metab. 2017;70:59–65.PubMedCrossRef

Titel: Maternal adaptation to pregnancy
Auteurs: L. L. H. Peeters, MD, PhD
P. W. de Leeuw, MD, PhD
E. D. Post Uiterweer, MD, PhD
Uitgeverij: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum
Boek: Pathophysiology of pregnancy complications
Print ISBN: 978-90-368-2570-2

Elektronisch ISBN: 978-90-368-2571-9

Copyright: 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-368-2571-9_1

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen