Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in:

01-12-2009 | Original Paper

Looking But Not Seeing: Atypical Visual Scanning and Recognition of Faces in 2 and 4-Year-Old Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Auteurs: Katarzyna Chawarska, Frederick Shic

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | Uitgave 12/2009

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Abstract

This study used eye-tracking to examine visual scanning and recognition of faces by 2- and 4-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (N = 44) and typically developing (TD) controls (N = 30). TD toddlers at both age levels scanned and recognized faces similarly. Toddlers with ASD looked increasingly away from faces with age, atypically attended to key features of faces, and were impaired in face recognition. Deficits in recognition were associated with imbalanced attention between key facial features. This study illustrates that face processing in ASD may be affected early and become further compromised with age. We propose that deficits in face processing likely impact the effectiveness of toddlers with ASD as social partners and thus should be targeted for intervention.
Literatuur
go back to reference American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
go back to reference Blair, R. J. R., Frith, U., Smith, N., Abell, F., & Cipolotti, L. (2002). Fractionation of visual memory: agency detection and its impairment in autism. Neuropsychologia, 40(1), 108–118.CrossRefPubMed Blair, R. J. R., Frith, U., Smith, N., Abell, F., & Cipolotti, L. (2002). Fractionation of visual memory: agency detection and its impairment in autism. Neuropsychologia, 40(1), 108–118.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Boraston, Z., Corden, B., Miles, L., Skuse, D., & Blakemore, S. (2008). Brief report: Perception of genuine and posed smiles by individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(3), 574–580.CrossRefPubMed Boraston, Z., Corden, B., Miles, L., Skuse, D., & Blakemore, S. (2008). Brief report: Perception of genuine and posed smiles by individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(3), 574–580.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Boucher, J., & Lewis, V. (1992). Unfamiliar face recognition in relatively able autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 33(5), 843–859.CrossRef Boucher, J., & Lewis, V. (1992). Unfamiliar face recognition in relatively able autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 33(5), 843–859.CrossRef
go back to reference Chawarska, K., & Volkmar, F. R. (2005). Autism in Infancy and Early Childhood. In: F. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, D. Cohen (Eds), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, Vol. 1: Diagnosis, development, neurobiology, and behavior (3rd ed.). Chawarska, K., & Volkmar, F. R. (2005). Autism in Infancy and Early Childhood. In: F. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, D. Cohen (Eds), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, Vol. 1: Diagnosis, development, neurobiology, and behavior (3rd ed.).
go back to reference Chawarska, K., & Volkmar, F. (2007). Impairments in monkey and human face recognition in 2-year-old toddlers with autism spectrum disorder and developmental delay. Developmental Science, 10(2), 266–279.CrossRefPubMed Chawarska, K., & Volkmar, F. (2007). Impairments in monkey and human face recognition in 2-year-old toddlers with autism spectrum disorder and developmental delay. Developmental Science, 10(2), 266–279.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Chawarska, K., Paul, R., Klin, A., Hannigen, S., Dichtel, L. E., & Volkmar, F. (2007). Parental recognition of developmental problems in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(1), 62–73.CrossRefPubMed Chawarska, K., Paul, R., Klin, A., Hannigen, S., Dichtel, L. E., & Volkmar, F. (2007). Parental recognition of developmental problems in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(1), 62–73.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Chawarska, K., Klin, A., Paul, R., Macari, S., & Volkmar, F. R. (in press). A prospective study of toddlers with ASD: Short-term diagnostic and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Chawarska, K., Klin, A., Paul, R., Macari, S., & Volkmar, F. R. (in press). A prospective study of toddlers with ASD: Short-term diagnostic and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
go back to reference Chawarska, K., Shic, F., Bradshaw, J., Macari, S., & Klin, A. (2009a). Atypical face scanning in high-risk infants. Presentation at the international conference of infancy studies, Chicago, IL. Chawarska, K., Shic, F., Bradshaw, J., Macari, S., & Klin, A. (2009a). Atypical face scanning in high-risk infants. Presentation at the international conference of infancy studies, Chicago, IL.
go back to reference Chawarska, K., Shic, F., & Macari, S. (2009b). Context matters: Development of face scanning strategies infancy, (manuscript in preparation). Chawarska, K., Shic, F., & Macari, S. (2009b). Context matters: Development of face scanning strategies infancy, (manuscript in preparation).
go back to reference Dalton, K. M., Nacewicz, B. M., Johnstone, T., Schaefer, H. S., Gernsbacher, M. A., Goldsmith, H., et al. (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nature Neuroscience, 8(4), 519–526.PubMed Dalton, K. M., Nacewicz, B. M., Johnstone, T., Schaefer, H. S., Gernsbacher, M. A., Goldsmith, H., et al. (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nature Neuroscience, 8(4), 519–526.PubMed
go back to reference Dapretto, M., Davies, M. S., Pfeifer, J. H., Scott, A. A., Sigman, M., Bookheimer, S. Y., et al. (2006). Understanding emotions in others: Mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Nature Neuroscience, 9(1), 28–30.CrossRefPubMed Dapretto, M., Davies, M. S., Pfeifer, J. H., Scott, A. A., Sigman, M., Bookheimer, S. Y., et al. (2006). Understanding emotions in others: Mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Nature Neuroscience, 9(1), 28–30.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference De Giacomo, A., & Fombonne, E. (1998). Parental recognition of developmental abnormalities in autism. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(3), 131–136.CrossRefPubMed De Giacomo, A., & Fombonne, E. (1998). Parental recognition of developmental abnormalities in autism. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(3), 131–136.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Duchowski, A. T. (2003). Eye tracking methodology: Theory and practice (1st ed.). Heidelberg: Springer. Duchowski, A. T. (2003). Eye tracking methodology: Theory and practice (1st ed.). Heidelberg: Springer.
go back to reference Fantz, R. (1964). Visual experience in infants: Decreased attention familiar patterns relative to novel ones. Science, 146(3644), 668–670.CrossRefPubMed Fantz, R. (1964). Visual experience in infants: Decreased attention familiar patterns relative to novel ones. Science, 146(3644), 668–670.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Gallay, M., Baudouin, J.-Y., Durand, K., Lemoine, C., & Lecuyer, R. (2006). Qualitative differences in the exploration of upright and upside-down faces in four-month-old infants: An eye-movement study. Child Development, 77(4), 984–996.CrossRefPubMed Gallay, M., Baudouin, J.-Y., Durand, K., Lemoine, C., & Lecuyer, R. (2006). Qualitative differences in the exploration of upright and upside-down faces in four-month-old infants: An eye-movement study. Child Development, 77(4), 984–996.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Gepner, B., de Gelder, B., & de Schonen, S. (1996). Face processing in autistics: Evidence for a generalized deficit? Child Neuropsychology, 2(2), 123–139.CrossRef Gepner, B., de Gelder, B., & de Schonen, S. (1996). Face processing in autistics: Evidence for a generalized deficit? Child Neuropsychology, 2(2), 123–139.CrossRef
go back to reference Golarai, G., Grill-Spector, K., & Rice, A. L. (2006). Autism and the development of face processing. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 6, 145–160.CrossRefPubMed Golarai, G., Grill-Spector, K., & Rice, A. L. (2006). Autism and the development of face processing. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 6, 145–160.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Gotham, K., Risi, S., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2007). The autism diagnostic observation schedule: Revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(4), 613–627.CrossRefPubMed Gotham, K., Risi, S., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2007). The autism diagnostic observation schedule: Revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(4), 613–627.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Hainline, L. (1978). Developmental changes in visual scanning of face and nonface patterns by infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 25(1), 90–115. Feb 1978.CrossRefPubMed Hainline, L. (1978). Developmental changes in visual scanning of face and nonface patterns by infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 25(1), 90–115. Feb 1978.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Haith, M. M., Bergman, T., & Moore, M. (1977). Eye contact and face scanning in early infancy. Science, 218, 179–181. Haith, M. M., Bergman, T., & Moore, M. (1977). Eye contact and face scanning in early infancy. Science, 218, 179–181.
go back to reference Hayhoe, M., & Ballard, D. (2005). Eye movements in natural behavior. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(4), 188–194.CrossRefPubMed Hayhoe, M., & Ballard, D. (2005). Eye movements in natural behavior. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(4), 188–194.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Heisz, J. J., & Shore, D. I. (2008). More efficient scanning for familiar faces. Journal of Vision, 8(1), 1–10.CrossRefPubMed Heisz, J. J., & Shore, D. I. (2008). More efficient scanning for familiar faces. Journal of Vision, 8(1), 1–10.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Henderson, J. M. (2003). Human gaze control during real-world scene perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(11), 498–504.CrossRefPubMed Henderson, J. M. (2003). Human gaze control during real-world scene perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(11), 498–504.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Henderson, J. M., Williams, C. C., & Falk, R. J. (2005). Eye movements are functional during face learning. Memory & Cognition, 33(1), 98–106. Henderson, J. M., Williams, C. C., & Falk, R. J. (2005). Eye movements are functional during face learning. Memory & Cognition, 33(1), 98–106.
go back to reference Jones, W., Carr, K., & Klin, A. (2008). Absence of preferential looking to the eyes of approaching adults predicts level of social disability in 2-year-olds with autism spectrum disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(8), 946–954.CrossRefPubMed Jones, W., Carr, K., & Klin, A. (2008). Absence of preferential looking to the eyes of approaching adults predicts level of social disability in 2-year-olds with autism spectrum disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(8), 946–954.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Joseph, R. M., & Tanaka, J. (2003). Holistic and part-based face recognition in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(4), 529–542.CrossRefPubMed Joseph, R. M., & Tanaka, J. (2003). Holistic and part-based face recognition in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(4), 529–542.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Kaplan, P., Werner, J., & Rudy, J. (1990). Habituation, sensitization, and infant visual attention. Advances in infancy research, 6, 61–109. Kaplan, P., Werner, J., & Rudy, J. (1990). Habituation, sensitization, and infant visual attention. Advances in infancy research, 6, 61–109.
go back to reference Klin, A., Sparrow, S. S., de Bildt, A., Cicchetti, D. V., Cohen, D. J., & Volkmar, F. R. (1999). A normed study of face recognition in autism and related disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(6), 499–508.CrossRefPubMed Klin, A., Sparrow, S. S., de Bildt, A., Cicchetti, D. V., Cohen, D. J., & Volkmar, F. R. (1999). A normed study of face recognition in autism and related disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(6), 499–508.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., Volkmar, F., & Cohen, D. (2002). Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(9), 809–816.CrossRefPubMed Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., Volkmar, F., & Cohen, D. (2002). Visual fixation patterns during viewing of naturalistic social situations as predictors of social competence in individuals with autism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(9), 809–816.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Klin, A., Lin, D., Gorrindo, P., Ramsay, G., & Jones, W. (2009). Two-year-olds with autism orient to non-social contingencies rather than biological motion. Nature, 459(7244), 257–261. doi: 10.1038/nature07868.CrossRefPubMed Klin, A., Lin, D., Gorrindo, P., Ramsay, G., & Jones, W. (2009). Two-year-olds with autism orient to non-social contingencies rather than biological motion. Nature, 459(7244), 257–261. doi: 10.​1038/​nature07868.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Langdell, T. (1978). Recognition of faces: An approach to the study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19, 255–268.CrossRefPubMed Langdell, T. (1978). Recognition of faces: An approach to the study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19, 255–268.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference López, B., Donnelly, N., Hadwin, J. A., & Leekam, S. R. (2004). Face processing in high-functioning adolescents with autism: Evidence for weak central coherence. Visual Cognition, 11(6), 673–688.CrossRef López, B., Donnelly, N., Hadwin, J. A., & Leekam, S. R. (2004). Face processing in high-functioning adolescents with autism: Evidence for weak central coherence. Visual Cognition, 11(6), 673–688.CrossRef
go back to reference Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223.CrossRefPubMed Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Lundqvist, D., Flykt, A., & Öhman, A. (1998). The Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces—KDEF, CD ROM from Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychology section, Karolinska Institutet, ISBN 91-630-7164-9. Lundqvist, D., Flykt, A., & Öhman, A. (1998). The Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces—KDEF, CD ROM from Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychology section, Karolinska Institutet, ISBN 91-630-7164-9.
go back to reference Mathworks, Inc. (2004). MATLAB 7.0 (Release 14). Mathworks, Inc. (2004). MATLAB 7.0 (Release 14).
go back to reference Maurer, D., & Salapatek, P. (1976). Developmental changes in the scanning of faces by young infants. Child Development, 47(2), 523–527.CrossRefPubMed Maurer, D., & Salapatek, P. (1976). Developmental changes in the scanning of faces by young infants. Child Development, 47(2), 523–527.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Morgan, K., & Hayne, H. (2006). The effect of encoding time on retention by infants and young children. Infant behavior & development, 29, 599–602.CrossRef Morgan, K., & Hayne, H. (2006). The effect of encoding time on retention by infants and young children. Infant behavior & development, 29, 599–602.CrossRef
go back to reference Mullen, E. (1995). Mullen scales of early learning (AGS Edition ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Serivce, Inc. Mullen, E. (1995). Mullen scales of early learning (AGS Edition ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Serivce, Inc.
go back to reference Neumann, D., Spezio, M. L., Piven, J., & Adolphs, R. (2006). Looking you in the mouth: Abnormal gaze in autism resulting from impaired top-down modulation of visual attention. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 194–202.CrossRefPubMed Neumann, D., Spezio, M. L., Piven, J., & Adolphs, R. (2006). Looking you in the mouth: Abnormal gaze in autism resulting from impaired top-down modulation of visual attention. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 194–202.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Pascalis, O., & de Haan, M. (2003). Recognition memory and novelty preference: What model? Progress in Infancy Research, 3, 95–120. Pascalis, O., & de Haan, M. (2003). Recognition memory and novelty preference: What model? Progress in Infancy Research, 3, 95–120.
go back to reference Paul, R. (2008). Communication development and assessment. In K. Chawarska, A. Klin, & F. Volkmar (Eds.), Autism in infants and toddlers: Diagnosis, assessment and treatment. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Paul, R. (2008). Communication development and assessment. In K. Chawarska, A. Klin, & F. Volkmar (Eds.), Autism in infants and toddlers: Diagnosis, assessment and treatment. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
go back to reference Paul, R., Chawarska, K., Fowler, C., Cicchetti, D., & Volkmar, F. (2007). “Listen my children and you shall hear”: Auditory preferences in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 50(5), 1350–1364.CrossRef Paul, R., Chawarska, K., Fowler, C., Cicchetti, D., & Volkmar, F. (2007). “Listen my children and you shall hear”: Auditory preferences in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 50(5), 1350–1364.CrossRef
go back to reference Pelphrey, K. A., Sasson, N. J., Reznick, J., Paul, G., Goldman, B. D., & Piven, J. (2002). Visual scanning of faces in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(4), 249–261.CrossRefPubMed Pelphrey, K. A., Sasson, N. J., Reznick, J., Paul, G., Goldman, B. D., & Piven, J. (2002). Visual scanning of faces in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(4), 249–261.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Pierce, G. L., & Henderson, J. M. (2007). The control of fixation duration during scene perception. Visual Cognition, 15(1), 108–112. Pierce, G. L., & Henderson, J. M. (2007). The control of fixation duration during scene perception. Visual Cognition, 15(1), 108–112.
go back to reference Richards, J. E. (1997). Effects of attention in infants’ preference for briefly exposed visual stimuli in the paired-comparison recognition-memory paradigm. Developmental Psychology, 33, 22–31.CrossRefPubMed Richards, J. E. (1997). Effects of attention in infants’ preference for briefly exposed visual stimuli in the paired-comparison recognition-memory paradigm. Developmental Psychology, 33, 22–31.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Robinson, A. J., & Pascalis, O. (2004). Development of flexible visual recognition memory in human infants. Developmental Science, 7(5), 527–533.CrossRefPubMed Robinson, A. J., & Pascalis, O. (2004). Development of flexible visual recognition memory in human infants. Developmental Science, 7(5), 527–533.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Rose, S. A., Gottfried, A. W., Melloy-Carminar, P., & Bridger, W. H. (1981). Familiarity and novelty preference in infant recognition memory: Implications for information processing. Developmental Psychology, 18, 704–713.CrossRef Rose, S. A., Gottfried, A. W., Melloy-Carminar, P., & Bridger, W. H. (1981). Familiarity and novelty preference in infant recognition memory: Implications for information processing. Developmental Psychology, 18, 704–713.CrossRef
go back to reference Rutherford, M., & Towns, A. (2008). Scan path differences and similarities during emotion perception in those with and without autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(7), 1371–1381. doi: 10.1007/s10803-007-0525-7.CrossRefPubMed Rutherford, M., & Towns, A. (2008). Scan path differences and similarities during emotion perception in those with and without autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(7), 1371–1381. doi: 10.​1007/​s10803-007-0525-7.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Rutter, M., Le Couter, A., & Lord, C. (2003). ADI-R: Autism diagnostic interview-revised. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services. Rutter, M., Le Couter, A., & Lord, C. (2003). ADI-R: Autism diagnostic interview-revised. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
go back to reference SAS Institute Inc. (2004). SAS 9.1.3 Help and Documentation, Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc., (2000–2004). SAS Institute Inc. (2004). SAS 9.1.3 Help and Documentation, Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc., (2000–2004).
go back to reference Schultz, R. T. (2005). Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of the amygdala and fusiform face area. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2–3), 125–141.CrossRefPubMed Schultz, R. T. (2005). Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of the amygdala and fusiform face area. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2–3), 125–141.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Schyns, P. G., Bonnar, L., & Gosselin, F. (2002). Show me the features! Understanding recognition from the use of visual information. Psychological Science, 13(5), 402–409.CrossRefPubMed Schyns, P. G., Bonnar, L., & Gosselin, F. (2002). Show me the features! Understanding recognition from the use of visual information. Psychological Science, 13(5), 402–409.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Sensomotoric Instruments (2005). iView X (TM) RED. Sensomotoric Instruments (2005). iView X (TM) RED.
go back to reference Shic, F. (2008). Computational methods for eye-tracking analysis: Applications to autism. Ph.D. thesis, Yale University. Shic, F. (2008). Computational methods for eye-tracking analysis: Applications to autism. Ph.D. thesis, Yale University.
go back to reference Shic, F., Chawarska, K., Lin, D., & Scassellati, B. (2007). Measuring context: The gaze patterns of children with autism evaluated from the bottom-up. Development and learning, 2007. ICDL IEEE 6th international conference on. pp. 70–75. Shic, F., Chawarska, K., Lin, D., & Scassellati, B. (2007). Measuring context: The gaze patterns of children with autism evaluated from the bottom-up. Development and learning, 2007. ICDL IEEE 6th international conference on. pp. 70–75.
go back to reference Speer, L. L., Cook, A. E., McMahon, W. M., & Clark, E. (2007). Face processing in children with autism. Autism, 11(3), 265–277.CrossRefPubMed Speer, L. L., Cook, A. E., McMahon, W. M., & Clark, E. (2007). Face processing in children with autism. Autism, 11(3), 265–277.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Sterling, L., Dawson, G., Webb, S., Murias, M., Munson, J., Panagiotides, H., et al. (2008). The role of face familiarity in eye tracking of faces by individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 166–1675. Sterling, L., Dawson, G., Webb, S., Murias, M., Munson, J., Panagiotides, H., et al. (2008). The role of face familiarity in eye tracking of faces by individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 166–1675.
go back to reference van der Geest, J. N., Kemner, C., Verbaten, M. N., & van Engeland, H. (2002). Gaze behavior of children with pervasive developmental disorder toward human faces: A fixation time study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 43(5), 669–678.CrossRef van der Geest, J. N., Kemner, C., Verbaten, M. N., & van Engeland, H. (2002). Gaze behavior of children with pervasive developmental disorder toward human faces: A fixation time study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 43(5), 669–678.CrossRef
go back to reference Wallace, S., Coleman, M., & Bailey, A. (2008). An investigation of basic facial expression recognition in autism spectrum disorders. Cognition & Emotion, 22(7), 1353–1380.CrossRef Wallace, S., Coleman, M., & Bailey, A. (2008). An investigation of basic facial expression recognition in autism spectrum disorders. Cognition & Emotion, 22(7), 1353–1380.CrossRef
go back to reference Wolfe, J. M., & Horowitz, T. S. (2004). What attributes guide the deployment of visual attention and how do they do it? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(6), 495–501.CrossRefPubMed Wolfe, J. M., & Horowitz, T. S. (2004). What attributes guide the deployment of visual attention and how do they do it? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(6), 495–501.CrossRefPubMed
Metagegevens
Titel
Looking But Not Seeing: Atypical Visual Scanning and Recognition of Faces in 2 and 4-Year-Old Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Auteurs
Katarzyna Chawarska
Frederick Shic
Publicatiedatum
01-12-2009
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders / Uitgave 12/2009
Print ISSN: 0162-3257
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-3432
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0803-7