In Defense of Disciplines

In Defense of Disciplines Interdisciplinarity and Specialization in the Research University

by Jerry A. Jacobs

University of Chicago Press, 2014
Cloth: 978-0-226-06929-6 | Paper: 978-0-226-06932-6 | Electronic: 978-0-226-06946-3
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.001.0001

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ABOUT THIS BOOKAUTHOR BIOGRAPHYREVIEWSTABLE OF CONTENTS

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Calls for closer connections among disciplines can be heard throughout the world of scholarly research, from major universities to the National Institutes of Health. In Defense of Disciplines presents a fresh and daring analysis of the argument surrounding interdisciplinarity. Challenging the belief that blurring the boundaries between traditional academic fields promotes more integrated research and effective teaching, Jerry Jacobs contends that the promise of interdisciplinarity is illusory and that critiques of established disciplines are often overstated and misplaced.

Drawing on diverse sources of data, Jacobs offers a new theory of liberal arts disciplines such as biology, economics, and history that identifies the organizational sources of their dynamism and breadth. Illustrating his thesis with a wide range of case studies including the diffusion of ideas between fields, the creation of interdisciplinary scholarly journals, and the rise of new fields that spin off from existing ones, Jacobs turns many of the criticisms of disciplines on their heads to mount a powerful defense of the enduring value of liberal arts disciplines. This will become one of the anchors of the case against interdisciplinarity for years to come.

AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY

Jerry Jacobs is professor of sociology at the University of Pennsylvania. He is coauthor, with Ann Boulis, of The Changing Face of Medicine: Women Doctors and the Evolution of Health Care in America and, with Kathleen Gerson, The Time Divide: Work, Family, and Gender Inequality, among others. He lives near Philadelphia.

REVIEWS

“I congratulate Jerry Jacobs for the rigor of his research and the strenuousness of his arguments. There is revealing new information and necessary clarity and clarification in these pages. His critique of some of the most egregious assaults on the disciplines is especially noteworthy, and the case studies are valuable. This is a book that we need.”

— Harvey J. Graff, Ohio State University

“Jerry Jacobs’s new book provides the missing counterpoint to the fanfare for interdisciplinary collaboration that has swept over much of academe during the last three decades. Thanks to Jacobs’s creative and painstaking research, we now know that disciplines are not the ‘silos’ they are so often made out to be; instead, they are surprisingly open to good ideas and new methods developed elsewhere. Nor are universities rigidly bound to the disciplines—instead, they, routinely foster interdisciplinary work through dozens of organized research centers. This book is more than a necessary corrective. It is a well-crafted piece of social science, equally at home in the worlds of intellectual history, organizational studies, and quantitative methods. It deserves to be read by all who care about the future of universities—defenders and critics of the disciplines alike.”

— Steven G. Brint, University of California, Riverside

“At a time of undue hoopla about interdisciplinarity, this is a sobering, highly readable, and data-driven defense of retaining disciplinary units as the primary mode of organizing research universities. A must read for those concerned with the future of knowledge innovation.”

— Myra H. Strober, Stanford University

“This is a timely, subtle and much needed evaluation of interdisciplinarity as a far reaching goal sweeping around the globe. Jerry Jacobs sets new standards of discussion by documenting with great new data the long term fate of interdisciplinary fields and the centrality of disciplines to higher education and the modern research university.”

— Karin Knorr Cetina, University of Chicago

“An important work. . . . Jacobs puts his knowledge of the university and his keen sociological eye to good use and bases his discussion on existing studies and on primary and secondary data. His use of citation analyses to explore the issue of the flow of information among disciplines is particularly impressive, as is his chapter-long analysis of the interdisciplinary limitations of the field of American studies. . . . Highly recommended.”

— Choice

Introduction - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0001
[interdisciplinary, interdisciplinarity, silo, integrated knowledge, knowledge integration, university leadership]
Chapter 1 describes the rise of interdisciplinarity as a theme in higher education in recent years. Efforts to promote reform are evident in faculty hiring initiatives, university program reorganizations, foundation grant criteria, and undergraduate curricular proposals. The chapter suggests that the case against traditional academic disciplines such as biology, economics and history is overstated in some respects and misdirected in others. A long-term view of the contributions of disciplines suggests that they have been remarkably successful in generating successful research agendas. The tremendous volume of specialized knowledge raises questions about the viability of schemes designed to “integrate” knowledge. Alternatives to disciplines would likely recreate some of their key features: peer-reviewed journals, scholarly conferences, internal specialization, in short, they would recreate the structures of established discplines. Chapter 1 provides a brief sketch of the ideas developed and evidence presented in each of the subsequent chapters. (pages 1 - 10)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...

The Critique of Disciplinary Silos - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0002
[silo, disciplinary silo, complexity, integrated knowledge, knowledge integration, diffusion of knowledge, academic tribes, academic tribe]
Chapter 2 suggests that the main criticisms leveled at disciplines are premised on the assumption that they have become “silos.” This view holds that excessive compartmentalization inhibits communication between fields and stifles innovation. Disciplines are viewed as the wrong units to tackle the vexing social problems of the day, most of which are multifaceted and require insights from diverse areas of expertise. Increasingly, the case is being made for the university as an engine of economic growth; again, disciplines are seen as limiting rather than maximizing this potential. Finally, disciplines are criticized as thwarting efforts to promote a more holistic and integrated undergraduate educational experience. (pages 13 - 26)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...

Dynamic Disciplines - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0003
[disciplines, liberal arts, liberal arts disciplines, academic department, growth of knowledge, creativity]
Chapter 3 presents an institutional theory of academic disciplines that emphasizes the vibrant forces for innovation at work within disciplinary contexts. Discussions of interdisciplinarity generally ignore or downplay competition over status and resources among rival scholars, competition among neighboring specialties as well as competition among disciplines. Disciplines are broad, porous and dynamic, with both internal and external forces propelling scholarship forward. Disciplines thrive because they create effective research communities. A review of the number of degree granting disciplines and departments suggests that the number of liberal arts disciplines is quite small. Evidence on the rise of academic specialization shows that the modern academic department was common during the 1930s but generally had very few faculty members. The expansion of the liberal arts disciplines into intellectually vital units is only two-thirds of a century old. (pages 27 - 53)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...

Specialization, Synthesis, and the Proliferation of Journals - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0004
[scholarly journal, interdisciplinary journal, division of labor, social issues research, knowledge, growth of knowledge, specialization, information, information overload, academic communication]
Chapter 4 emphasizes the unavoidable need for specialization by focusing on the size and rapid growth of new research and scholarship. Approaching scholarly communication from the point of view of research journals, the chapter reports on an analysis of 789 new academic journals founded in the year 2008. A typology of six different approaches to interdisciplinary publishing is presented, including a paradoxical category, “specialized interdisciplinarity.” This term refers to fields that cut across traditional disciplinary lines but do so in a focused and targeted manner. Chapter 4 also discusses forces that pull in the direction of intellectual synthesis, and thus serve to balance the tendencies toward specialization. (pages 54 - 75)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...

Disciplines, Silos, and Webs - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0005
[silo, communication, diffusion, interdisciplinary, citation patterns, citation, reception of ideas, research on social issues]
Chapter 5 examines scholarly communication across fields by examining the question of whether disciplines can be viewed as isolated silos. The evidence is inconsistent with the ‘‘silo’’ framework because all fields are connected to one another to varying degrees. The chapter reviews the degree of intellectual contact between disciplines, including maps of science derived from the “Web of Knowledge” data base. The flow of particular ideas across disciplinary boundaries is tracked. Evidence on the prevalence of research focused on important social problems is presented, as are data on the ubiquity of research centers. The chapter also considers why the ‘‘silo’’ idea remains so appealing despite the considerable evidence against it. (pages 76 - 99)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...

Receptivity Curves: Educational Research and the Flow of Ideas - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0006
[growth of knowledge, reception of knowledge, citation, diffusion, education research, Jean Piaget, James S. Coleman, Pierre Bourdieu, Gary Becker]
Chapter 6 builds on the ideas developed in Chapter 5 by considering the timing of intellectual exchanges. The idea of an intellectual delay is specified by mapping out “receptivity curves,” that trace the timing of attention to research in particular disciplines. This concept is put into action by considering the case of research and scholarship moving into and out of the field of education. While critics of educational scholarship abound, especially in schools of education, this evidence presented suggests that educational research is quite responsive to the latest developments in the liberal arts disciplines. In other words, excessive delay is not characteristic of exchanges between education scholarship and research originating in other fields. (pages 100 - 120)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...

Antidisciplinarity - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0007
[interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, postdisciplinary, knowledge integration, academic freedom]
Chapter 7 considers the question of whether successful interdisciplinary lines of inquiry will congeal into new research fields or disciplinary subspecialties. The analysis suggests that the enduring success of any interdisciplinary system will require the recreation of established organizational forms. The discussion emphasizes the importance of research communities to the vitality of the current disciplinary system. The emphasis here is on the role of disciplines or discipline-like units as functioning intellectual, social, career and political systems. The chapter includes a discussion of multiple meanings of the term “integration.” Chapter 7 also considers the theme of antidisciplinarity that is evident in the writings of some scholars in this area, as well as a brief review of extant interdisciplinary doctoral degree programs. (pages 123 - 152)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...

American Studies: Interdisciplinarity over Half a Century - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0008
[American studies, interdisciplinary programs, African-American studies, women’s studies, gender studies, PhD job market, transdisciplinary]
American studies was one of the first academic fields to embrace the principle of interdisciplinarity. Chapter 8 reviews the history of the field since the late 1940s, summarizes its main intellectual currents and evolution. In organizational terms, American studies has been successful in terms of its endurance as a field, including the establishment of more than 30 journals and American studies programs in over 50 countries. On the other hand, American studies by no means unified the study of American society and culture. Instead, it helped to create the climate for the creation of additional interdisciplinary fields of inquiry, including African-American studies and women’s studies, thus contributing to the proliferation of new academic units. American studies programs rarely take the form of departments that control their own hiring decisions, and thus recipients of doctoral degrees in American studies must seek employment in neighboring departments such as English, history, film studies and other specialized studies programs. (pages 153 - 187)
This chapter is available at:
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Integrative Undergraduate Education - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0009
[integrated knowledge, integrated learning, cross-listed courses, team-teaching, service learning, pre-professional education, college degrees]
Chapter 9 considers interdisciplinarity in the context of undergraduate education. Evidence on the prevalence of cross-listed courses, team-taught classes and dual majors is presented that suggests that connections between diverse subjects are surprisingly common. Trend data since the 1970s indicate that interdisciplinary majors typically graduate few degree recipient. This point, among others, questions the notion that undergraduate demand is responsible for the expansion of interdisciplinary programs. A paradox of integrative education is proposed, namely that integration is more feasible and more likely the narrower the student’s specialty. Ironically, the traditional disciplines have played a key role in creating the intellectual underpinnings of many of the applied fields which become competitors for undergraduate enrollments. (pages 188 - 209)
This chapter is available at:
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Implementing Interdisciplinarity - Jerry A. Jacobs
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226069463.003.0010
[cross-disciplinary, faculty appointments, joint appointment, cluster hire, centralized decision making, interdisciplinary research]
Chapter 10 examines a number specific proposals designed to promote interdisciplinarity, including cross-disciplinary faculty appointments, “cluster hiring,” eliminating departments and disciplinary degrees, cross-disciplinary training of graduate students, and research grants targeted for interdisciplinary projects. These suggestions are assessed in terms of their likely consequences, along with the implications they have for the autonomy and viability of the existing disciplines. Many of the proposals advanced thus far will do little over the long term to consolidate knowledge into broader themes, since specialization will remain a powerful force. Some of the reforms designed to integrate knowledge will instead contribute to the proliferation of a large number of specialized interdisciplinary niches. Academic departments in particular and faculty members in general are likely to find their position in university affairs weakened as a result. Rather than promoting interdisciplinarity as an objective, better ways to strengthen the liberal arts and science disciplines are considered. (pages 210 - 228)
This chapter is available at:
https://academic.oup.com/chica...