Abstract
In three experiments, we studied the relation between degree of implicit learning and two aspects of short-term memory: (l) the activation level of the to-be-learned information, and (2) individual differences in short-term memory capacity. In all the experiments, we used the Nissen and Bullemer (1987) serial reaction time paradigm or a modification thereof. The effects of activation level were assessed by experimentally manipulating the rate of presentation. Individual differences in short-term memory capacity were assessed via traditional span measures. The experiments demonstrated that the rate of presentation reliably affected an indirect measure of learning (i.e., response time) under both incidental and intentional task instructions and under both single-task and dual-task conditions. Short-term memory span was reliably related to the indirect measure of learning only in some experimental conditions. The findings represent important constraints for models of implicit serial learning and are discussed within a general framework for understanding implicit learning and memory.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arenberg, D (1982). Learning from our nustakes in aging research.Experimental Aging Research,8, 73–76.
Baddeley, A D. (1986).Working memory Oxford Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
Baddeley, A D. (1992). Working memoryScience,255, 556–559
Berry, D C., &Broadbent, D E. (1984) On the relationship between task performance and associated verbalizable knowledge.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,36A, 209–231.
Berry, D. C, &Broadbent, D E. (1988) Interactive tasks and the implicit-explicit distinction.British Journal of Psychology,79, 251–272
Berry, D. C., &Dienes, Z. (1991) The relationship between implicit memory and implicit learningBritish Journal of Psychology,82, 359–373
Botwinick, J., &Storandt, M. (1974)Memory, related-functions and age. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Broadbent, D. E. (1984) The Maltese cross A new simplistic model for memory.Behavioural & Brain Sciences,7, 55–94.
Chiarello, C., &Hover, W. J. (1988). Adult age differences in unpheit and explicit memory: Time course and encoding effects.Psychology & Aging,3, 358–366.
Cleeremans, A., &McClelland, J. L (1991) Learning the structure of event sequences.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,120, 235–253.
Cohen, A Ivry, R. I., &Keelf, S W (1990). Attention and structure in sequence learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, Learning, Memory, & Cognition,16, 17–30.
Cowan, N. (1988). Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information-processing systemPsychological Bulletin,104, 163–191
Cowan, N (1993). Activation, attention, and short-term memory.Memory & Cognition,21, 152–167.
Curran, T, &KeeLe, S W. (1993). Attentional and nonattentional forms of sequence learning.Journal of Experimenral Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition,19, 189–202
Dienes, Z. (1992). Cannectionist and memory-array models of artificialgraftunar learning Cognitive Science,16, 41–79.
Estes, W K. (1976). The cognitive side of probability learning,Psychological Review,83, 37–64
Estes, W. K. (1986). Memory storage and retrieval processes in category learning.Journal of Eapenmenml Psychology: General,115, 155–174
Falmagne, J C. (1965) Stochastic models for choice reaction time with application to experimental results.Journal of Mathemancal Psychology,2, 77–124
Fendrich, D.M., Healy, A. F, &Bourne, L E. (1991). Long-term repetition effects for motoric and perceptual proceduresJournal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition,17, 137–151.
Frensch, P A (1991). Transfer of composed knowledge in a multistep serial task.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition,17, 997–1016
Frensch, P. A. (in press). Composition dating renal learning A serial position effect.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition
Frensch, P A, Buchner, A, & Lin, J (in press) Implicit learning of unique and ambiguous serial transitions in the presence and absence of a distractor task.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Meman, & Cognition.
Frensch, P A., &Gerry, D. C. (1993). The effects of practice on component processes in complex mental addition.Journal of Expenmental Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition,19, 433–456
Goschke, T (1992, April)The role of attention in implicit learning of structured event sequences. Paper presented at the Annual Conference for Experimental Psychologists, Osnabruck, Germany.
Hartman, M, Knopman, D S., &Nissen, M J. (1989) Implicit learning of new verbal associations.Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, & Cognition,15, 1070–1082.
Hayves, N A., &Broadbent, D. E (1988). Two modes of learning for interactive tasksCognition,28, 249–276.
Hebb, D O. (1944)The organization of behavior A neuropsycholagical theory. New York: Wiley.
Hebb, D. O. (1961). Distinctive features of learning in the higher animal. In A. Fessard, R W Gerard, J. Konorsky, & J F. Delafresnaye (Eds),Brain mechanisms and learning (pp. 37–51). Oxford Blackwell
Hinszman, D L (1990). Human learning and memory: Connections and dissociations.Annual Review of Psychology,41, 109–139
Howard, D. V, &Howard, J. H, Jr (1989). Age differences in learning serial patterns: Direct versus indirect measures.Psychology & Aging,4, 357–364
Howard, D. V, &Howard, J H., Jr (1992). Adult age differences in the rate of learning serial patterns: Evidence from direct and indirect tests.Psychology & Aging,7,232–2411.
Howard, L. H, Jr.,Mutter, S. A., &Howard, D V. (1992). Serial pattern learning by event observation.Journal of Experimenml Psychology. Learning, Memory, & Cognition,18,1029–10399.
Jacoby, L L, &Brooks, L. R. (1984). Nonanalytic cognition Memory, perception, and concept learning. In G. Bower (Ed),The psychology of learning and motivation Vol. 18 (pp. 1–47). New York; Academic Press.
Jacoby, L. L, Toth, J P, &Yonelinas, A. P. (1993). Separating conscious and unconscious influences of memory: Measuring recollection.Journal of Experimental Psychology General,122, 139–154.
Jordan, M. L (1986). Attractor dynamics and parallelism in a connectionist sequential machine. InEighth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 531–546). Hillsdale, NJ. Erlbanm.
Jordan, M. L, &Rumelhart, D. E (1992) Forward models Supervised learning with a distal teacher.Cognitive Science,16, 307–354.
Kausler, D. H (1991).Experimental psycholagy, cognition, and human aging New York. Springer-Verlag.
Keele, S W., &Jennings, P.J. (1992). Attention in the representation of sequence Experiment and theoryHuman Movement Science,11, 125–138
Keele, S W., &Summers, I G. (1976). Structure of motor programs In G. E Stelmach (Ed ),Motor control: Issues and trends (pp. 109–142) New York: Academic Press
Knopman, D. S. (1991) Unaware learning versus preserved learning in pharmacological amnesia Similarities and differences.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition,17, 1017–1029.
Knopman, D. S., &Nissen, M J. (1987) Implicit learning in patients with probable Alzheimer's disease.Neurology,37, 784–788
Laming, D. R. J. (1969). Subjective probability in choice-reaction experimentsJournal of Mathematical Psychology,6, 81–120.
Lewicki, P., Czyzewska, M, &Hoffman, H. (1987). Unconscious acquisition of complex procedural knowledge.Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition,13, 523–530
Lewicki, P, Hill, T, &Hizot, E (1488). Acquisition of procedural knowledge about apattern of stimuli that cannot he articulated.Cognitive Psychology,20, 24–37
Light, L L., &Anderson, P A (1985) Working-memory capacity, age, and memory for discourse.Journal of Gerontology,411, 737–747.
Light.L L, &Burke, D M (1988). Patterns of language and memory in old age in L Light & D Burke (Eds.),Language, memory, and aging (pp. 244–271) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Lin, J, Frensch, P. A, & Suchner, A (1993)Implicit serial learning in the presence and absence o fa distractor task Manuscript in preparation
Mathews, R C., Buss, R R, Stanley, W B., Blanchard-Fields, F., Cho, J. R, &Druhan, B (1989). Role of implicit and explicit processes to learning from examples. A synergistic effectJournal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, & Cognition,15, 1083–1100.
McKeolvie, S. J. (1987). Learning and awareness in the Hebb digits task.Journal of General Psychology,114, 75–88.
Miliward, R. B, &Reber A S. (1968) Event recall in probability learning.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,7, 980–984.
Miliward, R. B, &Reber A S. (1972) Probability learning: contingent-event schedules with Lags AmericanJournal of Psychology,85, 81–98.
Myers, J. L (1979)Fundamentals of experimental design Boston Allyn & Bacon.
Nelson, D L, Schreider, T A., &McEvoy, C. L. (1942) Processing implicit and explicit representationsPsychological Review,99, 322–348
Nissen, M J., &Bullemer, P. (1987) Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measuresCognitive Psychology,19, 1–32.
Nissen, M. I., Knopman, D S., &Schacter, D L (1987) Neurochemical dissociation of memory systemsNeurology,3, 789–793.
Nissen, M, I, Willingham, D. B., &Hartman, M. (1989). Explicit and implicit remembering: When is learning preserved to amnesia?Nearopsychologia,27, 341–352
Peruchet, P., &Amorim, M -A (1992) Conscious knowledge and changes in performance in sequence learning: Evidence against dissociation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,18, 785–800
Plude, D. J, &Hoyer, W J (1985) Attention and performance Identifying and localizing age deficits. In N Charriess (Ed),Aging and human perfornrance (pp. 47–100) New York Wiley
Reber, A. S. (1467) Implicit learning of artificial grammarsJournal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,6,855–8633.
Reber, A S. (1989). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,118, 219–235.
Remington, R. J. (1969) Analysis of sequential effects in choice reaction timesJournal of Experimental Psychology,82, 250–257.
Richardson-Klavehn, A, &Bjork, R. A (1988) Measures of memoryAnnual Review of Psychology,39, 475–543.
Roediger, H L., III (1990) Implicit memory Retention without awarenessAmerican Psychologist,45, 1043–1056
Rose, T. L, Yesayage, J. A, Hill, R. D, &Bower, G. H (1986). Priming effects and recognition memory in young and elderly adults.Experimental Aging Research,12, 31–37
Salthouse, T A. (1985)A theory of cognitive aging Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Salthouse, T A. (1991). Mediation of adult age differences in cognition by reductions in working memory and speed of processing.Psychological Science,2, 174–183.
Schacter, D L. (1987) Implicit memory History and current status.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,13, 501–518.
Servan-Schreider, E., &Anderson, J. R. (1990) Learning artificial grammars with competitive chunking.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,16, 592–608
Stadler, M. A (1989) On learning complex procedural knowledge.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,15, 1061–1069
Stadler, M A. (1942) Statistical structure and implicit send learningJournal of Experimerual Psychology. Learning, Memory, & Cognition.18, 318–327.
Willingham, D. H., Nissen, M J, &Bullemer, P. (1489) On the development of procedural knowledge.Journal of Experimental Psycholaqy. Learning, Memory, & Cognition,15, 1047–1060.
Winer, B. J. (1971)Statistical principles to experimental design (2nd rd) New York McGraw-Hill.
Wright, B M, &Payne, R B (1985). Effects of aging on sex differences. in psychomotor reminiscence and tracking proficiencyJournal of Gerontology,40, 179–184.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This research was supported, in part, by a Research Council Grant from the graduate division of the University of Missouri, Columbia. to P A. F
Nelson Cowan, David Geary, Douglas Hintunan, Lynn Okagaki, Michael Stadler, Daniel Wpliagham, and an anonymous reviewer for insightful comments on earlier drafts of flit article.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Frensch, P.A., Miner, C.S. Effects of presentation rate and individual differences in short-term memory capacity on an indirect measure of serial learning. Mem Cogn 22, 95–110 (1994). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03202765
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03202765