Abstract
The effects of auditory and visual presentation upon short-term retention of verbal stimuli are reviewed, and a model of the structure of short-term memory is presented. The main assumption of the model is that verbal information presented to the auditory and visual modalities is processed in separate streams that have different properties and capabilities. Auditory items are automatically encoded in both the A (acoustic) code, which, in the absence of subsequent input, can be maintained for some time without deliberate allocation of attention, and a P (phonological) code. Visual items are retained in both the P code and a visual code. Within the auditory stream, successive items are strongly associated; in contrast, in the visual modality, it is simultaneously presented items that are strongly associated. These assumptions about the structure of short-term verbal memory are shown to account for many of the observed effects of presentation morality.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allport, D. A., Antonis, B., &Reynolds, P. (1972). On the division of attention: A disproof of the single channel hypothesis.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,24, 225–235.
Anderson, C. M. B., &Craik, F. I. M. (1974). The effect of a concurrent task on recall from primary memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,13, 107–113.
Anderson, R. E. (1986, November).Distinguishing between memories of reading, hearing, and thinking. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Psychonomic Society, New Orleans.
Arenberg, D. (1968). Input modality in short-term retention of old and young adults.Journal of Gerontology,23, 462–465.
Arenberg, D. (1976). The effect of input condition on free recall in young and old adults.Journal of Gerontology,31, 551–555.
Baddeley, A. D. (1983). Working memory.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,B302, 311–324.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A. D., &Hull, A. (1979). Prefix and suffix effects: Do they have a common basis?.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,18, 129–140.
Baddeley, A D., Lewis, V., &Vallar, G. (1984). Exploring the articulatory loop.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,36A, 233–252.
Badoeley, A. D., Thomson, N., &Buchanan, N. (1975). Word length and the structure of short-term memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,14, 575–589.
Balota, D. A., &Duchek, J. M. (1986). Voice-specific information and the 20-second delayed suffix effect.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,12, 509–516.
Balota, D. A., &Engle, R. W. (1981). Structural and strategic factors in the stimulus suffix effect.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behawor,20, 346–357.
Basso, A., Spinnler, H., Vallar, G., &Zanobio, E. M. (1982). Left hemisphere damage and selective impairment of auditory verbal short-term memory: A case study.Neuropsychologia,20, 263–274.
Broadbent, D. E. (1956). Successive responses to simultaneous stimuli.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,8, 145–152.
Broadbent, D., Cooper, P. J., Frankish, C. R., &Broadbent, M. H. P. (1980). Modality differences in relation to grouping in immediate recall.British Journal of Psychology,71,475–485.
Broadbent, D. E., &Gregory, M. (1961). On the recall of stimuli presented alternately to two sense-organs.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,13, 103–109.
Broadbent, D., Vines, R., &Broadbent, M. (1978). Recency effects in memory as a function of modality of intervening events.Psychological Research,40, 5–13.
Bryoen, M. P. (1964). The manipulation of strategies of report m dichotic listening.Canadian Journal of Psychology,18, 126–138.
Campbell, R., &Dodd, B. (1980). Hearing by eye.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,32, 85–99.
Campbell, R., &Dodd, B. (1982). Some suffix effects on lipread lists.Canadian Journal of Psychology,36, 508–514.
Campbell, R., Garwood, J., &Rosen, S. (1988). Adding sound to lipread lists: The effects on serial recall of adding an auditory pulse train and a pure tone to silently lipread lists.Memory & Cognition,16, 210–219.
Conrad, R., Baddeley, A. D., &Hull, A. J. (1966). Rate of presentation and the acoustic similarity effect in short-term memory.Psychonomic Science,5, 233–234.
Conrad, R., &Hull, A. J. (1964). Information, acoustic confusion and memory span.British Journal of Psychology,55, 429–432.
Cosrad, R., &Hull, A. J. (1968). Input modality and the serial position curve in short-term memory.Psychonomic Science,10, 135–136.
Conway, M. A., &Gatnercole, S. E. (1987). Modality and longterm memory.Journal of Memory & Language,26, 341–361.
Corteen, R. S., &Wood, B. (1972). Autonomic responses to shock-associated words in an unattended channel.Journal of Experimental Psychology,94, 308–313.
Craig, F. I. M. (1969). Modality effects in short-term storage.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,8, 658–664.
Crowder, R. G. (1966). Visual presentation of stimuli in immediate memory.Psychonomic Science,6, 449–450.
Crowder, R. G. (1967). Prefix effects in immediate memory.Canadian Journal of Psychology,21,450–461.
Crowder, R. G. (1970). The role of one's own voice in immediate memory.Cognitive Psychology,1, 157–178.
Crowder, R. G. (1971). The sound of vowels and consonants in immediate memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,10, 587–596.
Crowder, R. G. (1978). Mechanisms of auditory backward masking in the stimulus suffix effect.Psychological Review,85, 502–524.
Crowder, R. G. (1983). The purity of auditory memory.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,B302, 251–265.
Crowder, R. G. (1986). Auditory and temporal factors in the modality effect.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,12, 268–278.
Crowder, R. G., &Morton, J. (1969). Precategorical Acoustic Storage (PAS).Perception & Psychophysics,5, 365–373.
Dallett, K. M. (1965). “Primary memory”: The effects of redundancy upon digit repetition.Psychonomic Science,3, 237–238.
Darwin, C. J., &Baddeley, A. D. (1974). Acoustic memory and the perception of speech.Cognitive Psychology,6, 41–60.
Dennis, I. (1977). Component problems in dichotic listening.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,29, 437–450.
Dodd, B., &Campbell, R. (1984). Non-modality specific speech coding: The processing of lip-read information.Australian Journal of Psychology,36, 171–179.
Elliott, L. A., &Strawhorn, R. J. (1976). Interference in short-term memory from vocalization: Aural versus visual modality differences.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,2, 705–711.
Engle, R. W. (1974). The modality effect: Is precategorical acoustic storage responsible?.Journal of Experimental Psychology,102, 824–829.
Engle, R. W., &Mobley, L. A. (1976). The modality effect: What happens in long-term memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,15, 519–528.
Engle, R. W., &Roberts, J. S. (1982). How long does the modality effect persist?.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society,19, 343–346.
Fell, J. C., &Laughery, K. R. (1969). Short-term memory: Mode of presentation for alphanumeric information.Human Factors,11, 401–405.
Frankish, C. (1985). Modality-specific grouping effects in short-term memory.Journal of Memory & Language,24, 200–209.
Frankish, C., &Turner, J. (1984). Delayed suffix effect at very short delays.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,10, 767–777.
Frick, R. W. (1984). Using both an auditory and a visual short-term store to increase digit span.Memory & Cognition,12, 507–514.
Frick, R. W. (1985). Testing visual short-term memory: Simultaneous versus sequential presentations.Memory & Cognition,13, 346–356.
Frick, R. W., &De Rose, A. (1986a). Attenuating the visual suffix effect with color.Memory & Cognition,14, 391–397.
Frick, R. W., &De Rose, A. (1986b). The suffix effect and pre-attentive unit-formation in visual short-term memory.Canadian Journal of Psychology,40, 97–108.
Gardiner, J. M. (1983). On recency and echoic memory.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,B302, 267–282.
Gardiner, J. M., Gathercole, S. E., &Gregg, V. H. (1983). Further evidence of interference between lipreading and auditory recency.Journal of Erperimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,9, 328–333.
Gardiner, J. M., &Gregg, V. H. (1979). When auditory memory is not overwritten.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,18, 705–720.
Gap, Diner, J. M., Gregg, V. H., &Gardiner, M. M. (1984). Concerning additional evidence of an auditory advantage in prerecency as well as recency recall.American Journal of Psychology,97, 593–604.
Gardiner, J. M., Thompson, C. P., &Maskarinec, A. S. (1974). Negative recency in initial free recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology,103, 71–78.
Gathercole, S. E. (1986). The modality effect and articulation.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,38A, 461–474.
Gathercole, S. E., &Coswav, M. A. (1988). Exploring long-term modality effects: Vocalization leads to best retention.Memory & Cognition,16, 110–119.
Gathercole, S. E., Gardiner, J. M., &Gregg, V. H. (1982). Modality and phonological similarity effects in serial recall: Does one's own voice play a role?.Memory & Cognition,10, 176–180.
Gathercole, S. E., Gregg, V. H., &Gardiner, J. M. (1983). Influences of delayed distraction on the modality effect in free recall.British Journal of Psychology,74, 223–232.
Glenberg, A. M. (1984). A retrieval account of the long-term modality effect.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,10, 16–31.
Glenberg, A. M., &Swanos, N. G. (1986). A temporal distinctiveness theory of recency and modality effects.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,12, 3–15.
Gray, J. A., &Wedderburn, A. A. I. (1960). Grouping strategies with simultaneous stimuli.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,12, 180–184.
Greene, R. L. (1985). Constraints on the long-term modality effect.Journal of Memory & Language,24, 526–541.
Greene, R. L., &Crowder, R. G. (1984). Modality and suffix effects in the absence of auditory stimulation.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,23, 371–382.
Greene, R. L., &Crowder, R. G. (1986). Recency effects in delayed recall of mouthed stimuli.Memory & Cognition,14, 355–360.
Greene, R. L., &Samuel, A. G. (1986). Recency and suffix effects in serial recall of musical stimuli.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,12, 517–524.
Gregg, G. H., &Gardiner, J. M. (1984). Phonological similarity and enhanced auditory recency in longer-term free recall.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,36A, 13–27.
Harris, R. L., Gausepohl, J., Lewis, R. J., &Spoehr, K. T. (1979). The suffix effect: Postcategorical attributes in a serial recall paradigm.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society,13, 35–37.
Hede, A. J. (1973). Stimulus array and recall method as variables in audio-visual split-span memory.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,25, 130–137.
Hede, A. J. (1980). Dichotic and bisensory grouping effects.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,32, 295–306.
Hitch, G. J. (1974). Short-term memory for spatial and temporal information.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,26, 503–513.
Hitch, G. J. (1975). The role of attention in visual and auditory suffix effects.Memory & Cognition,3, 501–505.
Hitch, G., &Morton, J. (1975). The unimportance of explicit spatial information in serial recall of visually presented lists.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,27, 161–164.
Hopkins, R. H., Edwards, R. E., &Cook, C. L. (1973). Presentation modality, distractor modality, and proactive interference in shortterm memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology,98, 362–367.
Huang, S.-T., &Glenberg, A. M. (1986). Echoic and retrieval accounts of the long-term modality effect tested using the suffix procedure.American Journal of Psychology,99, 453–470.
Johansson, B. S., &Nilsson, L.-G. (1979). Boundary conditions for the modality effect: Type of material and time of test.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,20, 26–35.
Kahneman, D. (1973).Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kahneman, D., &Henik, A. (1977). Effects of visual grouping on immediate recall and selective attention. In S. Dornic (Ed.),Attention and performance VI. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kappel, S., Harford, M., Burns, V. D., St Anderson, N. S. (1973). Effects of vocalization on short-term memory for words.Journal of Experimental Psychology,101, 314–317.
Kellas, G., McCaulev, C., &McFarland, C. E., Jr. (1975). Reexamination of externalized rehearsal.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,1, 84–90.
Kirsner, K., &Dunn J. (1985). The perceptual record: A common factor in repetition priming and attribute retention. In M. Posner & O. Marin (Eds.),Attention and performance XI (pp. 547–565). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kolers, P. A., &Roediger, H. L. (1984). Procedures of mind.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,23, 425–449.
Kroll, N. E. A. (1975). Visual short-term memory. In D. Deutsch & S. A. Deutsch (Eds.),Short-term memory (pp. 153–179). New York: Academic Press.
Kroll, N. E. A., Parks, T., Parkinson, S. R., Bieber, S. L., &Johnson, A. L. (1970). Short-term memory while shadowing: Recall of visually) and aurally presented letters.Journal of Experimental Psychology,85, 220–224.
Laughery, K. R., &Pinkus, A. L. (1966). Short-term memory: Effects of acoustic similarity, presentation rate and presentation mode.Psychonomic Science,6, 285–286.
Levy, B. A. (1971). Role of articulation in auditory and visual short-term memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,10, 123–132.
Mackworth, J. F. (1962). The effect of display time upon the recall of digits.Canadian Journal of Psychology,16, 48–54.
Mackworth, J. F. (1964). Auditory short-term memory.Canadian Journal of Psychology,18, 292–303.
Madigan, S. A. (1971). Modality and recall order interactions in short-term memory for serial order.Journal of Experimental Psychology,87, 294–296.
Madsen, M. C., Rollins, H. A., &Senf, G. M. (1970). Variables affecting immediate memory for bisensory stimuli: Eye-ear analogue studies of dichotic listening.Journal of Experimental Psychology Monographs,83(3, Pt. 2).
Manning, S. K. (1980). Tactual and visual alphanumeric suffix effects.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,32, 257–267.
Manning, S. K. (1987). Attentional control of visual suffix effects.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society,25, 423–426.
Manning, S. K., &Gmuer, B. A. (1985). Visual suffix effects on the Optacon: A test of changing state, primary linguistic, and attentional theories.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society,23, 1–4.
Manning, S. K., &Pacifici, C. (1983). The effects of a suffix-prefix on forward and backward serial recall.American Journal of Psychology,96, 127–134.
Manning, S. K., &Turner, J. S. (1984). Recency and end-of-sequence suffix effects are not always linked.American Journal of Psychology,97, 407–417.
Marcer, D. (1967). The effect of presentation method on short-term recall of CCC trigrams.Psychonomic Science,8, 335–336.
Marcer, D. (1972). Interference and short-term retention.British Journal of Psychology,63, 533–536.
Margrain, S. (1967). Short-term memory as a function of input modality.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,19, 109–114.
Martin, M. (1980). Attention to words in different modalities: Four-channel presentation with physical and semantic selection.Acta Psychologica,44, 99–115.
Martin, M., St Jones, G. V. (1979). Modality dependency of loss of recency in free recall.Psychological Research,40, 273–289.
Mares, J. T. (1988). On the nature of echoic persistence: Experiments with running memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,14, 278–288.
Mayzner, M. S., St Adler, S. (1965). A further study of information “chunking” and short-term retention.Journal of Psychology,59, 125–130.
Mayzner, M. S., &Gabmel, R. F. (1963). Information “chunking” and short-term retention.Journal of Psychology,56, 161–164.
Mayzner, M. S., &Gabriel, R. F. (1964). The effect of spatial organization on short-term retention.Journal of Psychology,58, 17–21.
McFarland, C. E., Jr., &Kellas, G. (1974). Mode of input effects on subject-controlled processes.Journal of Experimental Psychology,103, 343–350.
McGhie, A., Chapman, J., &Lawson, J. S. (1965). Changes in immediate memory with age.British Journal of Psychology,59, 119–125.
Merikle, P. (1976). On the disruption of visual memory: Interference produced by visual report cues.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,28, 193–202.
Metcalfe, J., Glavanov, D., &Murdock, M. (1981). Spatial and temporal processing in the auditory and visual modalities.Memory & Cognition,9, 351–359.
Metcalfe, J., &Sharpe, D. (1985). Ordering and reordering in the auditory and visual modalities.Memory & Cognition,13, 435–441.
Morton, J. (1976). Two mechanisms in the stimulus suffix effect.Memory & Cognition,4, 144–149.
Mowbray, G. H. (1964). Perception and retention of verbal information presented during auditory shadowing.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,36, 1459–1464.
Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1967). Auditory and visual stores in short-term memory.Acta Psychologica,27, 316–324.
Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1969). Where or when: Modality effects as a function of temporal and spatial distribution of information.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,8, 378–383.
Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1971). Four-channel effects in short-term memory.Psychonomic Science,24, 197–198.
Murdock, B. B., Jr., &Campy, S. T. (1972). Release from interference in single-trial free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,11, 398–402.
Murdock, B. B., Jr., &Walker, K. D. (1969). Modality effects in free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,8, 665–676.
Murray, D. J. (1965). The effect of white noise upon the recall of vocalized lists.Canadian Journal of Psychology,19, 333–345.
Murray, D. J. (1966). Vocalization at presentation and immediate recall with varying recall methods.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,18, 9–18.
Murray, D. J., &Ronberts, B. (1968). Visual and auditory presentation, presentation rate and short-term memory in children.British Journal of Psychology,59, 119–125.
Nairne, J. S., &Crowder, R. G. (1982). On the locus of the stimulus suffix effect.Memory & Cognition,10, 350–357.
Nairne, J. S., &Pusen, C. (1984). Serial recall of imagined voices.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,23, 331–342.
Nairne, J. S., &Walters, V. L. (1983). Silent mouthing produces modality- and suffix-like effects.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,22, 475–483.
Nilsson, L.-G. (1973). Organization by modality in short-term memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology,100, 246–253.
Nilsson, L.-G. (1974). Further evidence for organization by modality in immediate free recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology,103, 948–957.
Nilsson, L.-G. (1979). A functional interpretation of the modality effect.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,20, 259–265.
Nilsson, L.-G., Wright, E., &Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1975). The effects of visual presentation method on single-trial free recall.Memory & Cognition,3, 427–433.
Nilsson, L.-G., Wright, E., &Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1979). Order of recall, output interference and the modality effect.Psychological Research,41, 63–78.
Norman, D. A. (1969). Memory while shadowing.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,21, 85–93.
O'Connor, N., 8, Hermelin, B. (1972). Seeing and hearing and space and time.Perception & Psychophysics,11, 46–48.
O'Connor, N., &Hermelin, B. (1973). The spatial or temporal organization of short-term memory.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,25, 335–343.
O'Connor, N., &Hermelin, B. (1978).Seeing and heanng and space and time. London: Academic Press.
Parkinson, S. R. (1972). Short-term memory while shadowing: Multiple item recall of visually and aurally presented letters.Journal of Experimental Psychology,92, 256–265.
Parkinson, S. R., Knight, M. V., DeMaio, J. C., &Connors, J. F. (1974). Channels and order of report in dichotic memory.Perception & Psychophysics,16, 235–241.
Parkinson, S. R., Parks, T. E., &Kroll, N. E. A. (1971). Visual and auditory short-term memory: Effects of phonemically similar auditory shadow material during the retention interval.Journal of Experimental Psychology,87, 274–280.
Peca, T. A., Reid, H. M., &Mason, S. W. (1982). Effect of input modality and orienting task on memory.Perceptual & Motor Skills,55, 1216.
Penney, C. G. (1973). Bisensory studies in short-term memory: New light on the effects of presentation modality. Unpublished doctoral dissenation, University of Toronto.
Penney, C. G. (1974a). Dichotic listening and sequential associations In auditory short-term memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology,102, 142–150.
Penney, C. G. (1974b). Order of report and interference effects in four-channel bisensory memory.Canadian Journal of Psychology,28, 371–382.
Penney, C. G. (1975). Modality effects in short-term verbal memory.Psychological Bulletin,82, 68–84.
Penney, C. G. (1976). Order information in dichotic memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,2, 340–346.
Penney, C. G. (1978). Suffix effects in lists of temporally grouped words.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,30, 235–250.
Penney, C. G. (1979). Interactions of suffix effects with suffix delay and recall modality in serial recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology,5, 507–521.
Penney, C. G. (1980). Order of report in bisensory verbal short-term memory.Canadian Journal of Psychology,34, 190–195.
Penney, C. G. (1982a). Serial recall versus recall by categories in short-term memory.Canadian Journal of Psychology,36, 83–93.
Penney, C. G. (1982b). Suffix effects and probe modadity in probed recall: Implications for readout from sensory memory.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,34A, 245–257.
Penney, C. G. (1985). Elimination of the suffix effect on preterminal list items with unpredictable list length: Evidence for a dual model of suffix effects.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,11, 229–247.
Penney, C. G. (1986, November). The effects of orienting task and presentation modality upon judged frequency. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Psychonomic Society, New Orleans.
Penney, C. G., &Butt, A. K. (1986). Within- and between-modality associations in probed recall: A test of the separate-streams hypothesis.Canadian Journal of Psychology,40, 1–11.
Peterson, L. R., &Johnson, S. T. (1971). Some effects of minimizing articulation on short-term retention.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,10, 346–354.
Proctor, R. W., &Fagnani, C. A. (1978). Effects of distractor-stimulus modality in the Brown-Peterson distractor task.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,4, 676–684.
Roberts, L. A. (1986). Modality and suffix effects in memory for melodic and harmonic musical materials.Cognitive Psychology,18, 123–157.
Roberts, W. A. (1972). Free recall of word lists varying in length and rate of presentation: A test of total time hypotheses.Journal of Experimental Psychology,92, 365–372.
Rollins, H. A. (1972). Serial position effects in simultaneous bisensory memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology,94, 162–167
Rollins, H. A., Jr., &Hendricks, R. (1980). Processing of words presented simultaneously to eye and ear.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,6, 99–109
Rollins, H. A., Schurman, D. L., Evans, M. J., &Knoph, K. (1975). Auditory versus visual processing of three sets of simultaneous digits pairs.Journal of Erperimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,1, 173–181.
Rollins, H. A., &Thibadeau, R. (1973). The effects of auditory shadowing on recognition of information received visually.Memory & Cognition,1, 164–168.
Rönnberg, J., Nilsson, L.-G., &Ohisson, K. (1982). Organization by modality, language, and category compared.Psychological Research,44, 369–379.
Rönnberg, J., &Ohisson, K. (1980). Channel capacity and processing of modality specific information.Acta Psychologica,44, 253–267.
Routh, D. A. (1970). ‘Trace strength,’ modality, and the serial position curve in immediate memory.Psychonomic Science,18, 355–357
Routh, D. A. (1976). An ‘across-the-board’ modality effect in immediate serial recall.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,28, 285–304.
Routh, D. A., &Lifschutz, A. J. (1975). An asymmetrical effect of similarity in the attenuation of stimulus suffix interference.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,14, 95–104.
Rowe, E J., &Rowe, W. G. (1976). Stimulus suffix effects with speech and nonspeech sounds.Memory & Cognition,4, 128–131.
Rvan, J. (1969a). Grouping and short-term memory: Different means and patterns of grouping.Quarterly Journal of Eaperimental Psychology,21, 137–147.
Ryan, J. (1969b). Temporal grouping, rehearsal and short-term memory.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,21, 148–155.
Saffran, E. M., &Marin, O. S. M. (1975). Immediate memory for word lists and sentences in a patient with deficient auditory short-term memory.Brain & Language,2, 420–433.
Salamé, P., &Baddelev, A. D. (1982). Disruption of short-term memory by unattended speech: Implications for the structure of working memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,21, 150–164.
Salter, D., &Colley, J. G. (1977). The stimulus suffix: A paradoxical effect.Memory & Cognition,5, 257–262.
Salzberg, P. M., Parks, T. E., Kroll, N. E. A., &Parkinson, S. R. (1971). Retroactive effects of phonemic similarity on short-term recall of visual and auditory stimuli.Journal of Experimental Psychology,91, 43–46.
Sampson, H., &Spong, P. (1961). Handedness, eye-dominance, and immediate memory.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,13, 173–180.
Savin, H. B (1967). On the successive perception of simultaneous stimuli.Perception & Psychophysics,2, 479–482.
Schurman, D., Everson, M. D., &Rollins, H. A. (1972). Successive vs simultaneous processing of superimposed visual stimuli.Perception & Psychophysics,11, 420–422.
Senf, G. M., &Rollins, H. A. (1971). Effect of precuing versus postcuing retrieval order on the accuracy of bisensory memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology,88, 12–15.
Shaffer, L. H. (1975). Multiple attention in continuous verbal tasks. In P. M. A. Rabbitt & S. Dornic (Eds.),Attention and performance V (pp. 157–167). London: Academic Press.
Shallice, T., &Warrington, E. K. (1970). Independent functioning of verbal memory stores: A neuropsychological study.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,22, 261–273.
Shallice, T., &Warrington, E. K. (1977). Auditory-verbal shortterm memory impairment and condition aphasia.Brain & Language,4, 480–491.
Shand, M. A., &Klima, E. S. (1981). Nonauditory suffix effects in congenitally deaf signers of American Sign Language.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,7, 464–474.
Snodgrass, J. G., &Antone, G. (1974). Parallel versus sequential processing of pictures and words.Journal of Experimental Psychology,1113, 129–144.
Sperling, G. (1963). A model for visual memory tasks.Human Factors,5, 19–31.
Sperling, G. (1967). Successive approximations to a model for short-term memory.Acta Psychologtca,27, 285–292.
Spoehr, K. T., &Corin, W. J. (1978). The stimulus suffix effect as a memory coding phenomenon.Memory & Cognition,6, 583–589.
Strub, R. L., &Gardiner, H. (1974). The repetition defect in conduction aphasia: Mnestic or linguistic?.Brain & Language,1,241–255.
Taub, H. A. (1972). A comparison of young adult and old groups on various digit span tasks.Developmental Psychology,6, 60–65.
Tell, P. M., &,Ferguson, A. M. (1974). Influence of active and passive vocalization on short-term recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology,102, 347–349.
Treisman, A. M. (1960). Contextual cues in selective listening.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,12, 242–248.
Treisman, A. M. (1964). Monitoring and storage of irrelevant messages in selective attention.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,3,449–459.
Treisman, A. M., &Davies, A. (1973). Divided attention to ear and eye. In S. Kornblum (Ed.),Attention and performance IV (pp. 101–117). New York: Academic Press.
Turner, M L., LaPointe, L. B., Cantor, J., Reeves, C. H., Griffith, R H., &,Engle, R. W. (1987). Recency and suffix effects found with auditory presentation and mouthed visual presentation: They're not the same thing.Journal of Memory & Language,26, 138–164.
Tzortzis, C., &,Albert, M. L. (1974). Impairment of memory for sequences tn conduction aphasia.Neuropsychologia,12, 355–366.
Vallar, G., &,Baddeley, A. D. (1984). Fractionation of working memory: Neuropsychological evidence for a phonological short-term store.Journal of Verbal Learning& Verbal Behavior,23, 151–161.
Warrington, E. K., Logue, V., &Pratt, R. T. C. (1971). The anatomical localization of selective impairment of auditory-verbal short-term memory.Neuropsychologia,9, 377–388.
Warrington, E. K., &Rabin, P. (1971). Visual span of apprehension in patients with unilateral cerebral lesions.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,23, 423–431.
Warrington, E. K., &Shallice, T. (1969). The selecrave impairment of auditory verbal short-term memory.Brain,92, 885–896.
Warrington, E. K., &Shallice, T. (1972). Neuropsychological evidence of visual storage in short-term memory tasks.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,24, 34–40.
Watkins, M. J. (1972). Locus of the modality effect in free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,11, 644–648.
Watkins, M. J., &Peynircioglu, Z. F. (1983). Interaction between presentation modality and recall order in memory span.American Journal of Psychology,96, 315–322.
Watkins, M. J., &,Todres, A. K. (1980). Suffix effects manifest and concealed: Further evidence for a 20-second echo.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavtor,19, 46–53.
Watkins, M. J., &Watkins, O. C. (1973). The post-categorical status of the modality effect in serial recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology,99, 226–230.
Watkins, M. J., &,Watkins, O. C. (1974). A tactile suffix effect.Memory & Cognition,2, 176–180.
Watkins, O. C., &Watkins, M. J. (1980). The modality effect and echoic persistence.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,109, 251–278.
Watkins, O. C., &Watkins, M. J. (1982). Lateral inhibition and echoic memory: Some comments on Crowder's (1978) theory.Memory & Cognition,10, 279–286.
Watkins, M. J., Watkins, O. C., &Crowder, R. G. (1974). The modality effect in free and serial recall as a function of phonological similarity.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,13, 430–447.
Whitmore, M. G. (1972). Stimulus meaning as a variable in dichotie listening.Psychonomic Science,26, 207–208.
Yntema, D. B., &Trask, F. P. (1963). Recall as a search process.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,2, 65–74.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Penney, C.G. Modality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory. Mem Cogn 17, 398–422 (1989). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03202613
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03202613