Abstract
Studies have shown that task sets could be configured endogenously (i.e., on the basis of memory) according to an explicit sequence or exogenously according to a task cue. In two experiments, we examined whether an implicitly learned sequence could facilitate task set configuration without participants’ intention. These experiments led to opposite conclusions regarding this question, but their methodology made it impossible to distinguish between the interpretations. We altered the task-switching paradigm by embedding a hidden task sequence, while randomizing all other aspects, including perceptual (i.e., task cues) and motor elements. We found that a sequence of tasks, proper, was learned implicitly and that the memory of that sequence endogenously facilitated task decision processes without the participants’ explicit knowledge.
Article PDF
References
Allport, D. A., Styles, E. A., &Hsieh, S. (1994). Shifting intentional set: Exploring the dynamic control of tasks. In C. Umiltá & M. Moscovitch (Eds.),Attention & Performance XV: Conscious and nonconscious information processing (pp. 421–452). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
de Jong, R. (1995). Strategical determinants of compatibility effects with task uncertainty.Acta Psychologica,88, 187–207.
Destrebecqz, A., &Cleeremans, A. (2001). Can sequence learning be implicit? New evidence with the process dissociation procedure.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,8, 343–350.
Dienes, Z., &Berry, D. (1997). Implicit learning: Below the subjective threshold.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,4, 3–23.
Dienes, Z., &Perner, J. (1999). A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge.Behavioral & Brain Sciences,22, 735–755.
Fagot, C. (1994).Chronometric investigations of task switching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego.
Heuer, H., Schmidtke, V., &Kleinsorge, T. (2001). Implicit learning of sequences of tasks.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,27, 967–983.
Howard, J. H., Mutter, S. A., &Howard, D. V. (1992). Serial pattern learning by event observation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,18, 1029–1039.
Jersild, A. T. (1927). Mental set and shift.Archives of Psychology,14 (Whole No. 89).
Jiménez, L., &Méndez, C. (1999). Which attention is needed for implicit sequence learning?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,25, 236–259.
Koch, I. (2001). Automatic and intentional activation of task-sets.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,27, 1474–1486.
Mayr, U. (1996). Spatial attention and implicit sequence learning: Evidence for independent learning of spatial and nonspatial sequences.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,22, 350–364.
Mayr, U., &Keele, S. W. (2000). Changing internal constraints on action: The role of backward inhibition.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,129, 4–26.
Meiran, N. (1996). Reconfiguration of processing mode prior to task performance.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,22, 1423–1442.
Nissen, M. J., &Bullemer, P. (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures.Cognitive Psychology,19, 1–32.
Norman, D. A., &Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.),Consciousness and self-regulation (Vol. 4, pp. 1–18). New York: Plenum.
Perruchet, P., &Amorim, M. A. (1992). Conscious knowledge and changes in performance in sequence learning: Evidence against dissociation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,18, 785–800.
Perruchet, P., &Vinter, A. (2002). The self-organizing consciousness.Behavioral & Brain Sciences,25, 297–330.
Rogers, R. D., &Monsell, S. (1995). The cost of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,124, 207–231.
Rubinstein, J. S., Meyer, D. E., &Evans, J. E. (2001). Executive control of cognitive processes in task switching.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,27, 763–797.
Ruthruff, E., Remington, R. W., &Johnston, J. C. (2001). Switching between simple cognitive tasks: The interaction of top-down and bottom-up factors.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,27, 1404–1419.
Shaffer, L. H. (1965). Choice reaction with variable S-R mapping.Journal of Experimental Psychology,70, 284–288.
Shanks, D. R., &St. John, M. F. (1994). Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems.Behavioral & Brain Sciences,17, 367–447.
Sohn, M., &Carlson, R. A. (2000). Effects of repetition and foreknowledge in task-set reconfiguration.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,26, 1445–1460.
Stadler, M. A. (1989). On learning complex procedural knowledge.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,15, 1061–1069.
Sudeven, P., &Taylor, D. A. (1987). The cueing and priming of cognitive operations.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,13, 89–103.
Willingham, D. B. (1999). Implicit motor sequence learning is not purely perceptual.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,27, 561–572.
Ziessler, M. (1994). The impact of motor responses on serial-pattern learning.Psychological Research,57, 30–41.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This research was sponsored by a research grant from Israel Foundations Trustees.
Note—This article was accepted by the previous editorial team, while John T. Wixted was editor
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gotler, A., Meiran, N. & Tzelgov, J. Nonintentional task set activation: Evidence from implicit task sequence learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 10, 890–896 (2003). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196549
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196549