Abstract
Recent evidence indicates that central directional stimuli, such as eyes and arrows, trigger rapid, reflexive shifts of spatial attention. A study by Fischer, Castel, Dodd, and Pratt (2003) suggested that a similar effect might also apply to central numbers, as if a digit’s meaning causes attention to be oriented to its relative position on a left-to-right mental number line. However, unlike central eyes and arrows, the orienting effect for central digits emerges slowly, suggesting that top-down endogenous processes may be mediating this effect. Here, we report a series of three experiments that strongly support this hypothesis. Experiment 1 replicated Fischer et al.’s left-to-right number line effect. Experiment 2 showed that this effect could be completely reversed by merely asking participants to imagine a number line running from right to left. Experiment 3 showed that a left-to-right number line effect could be abolished by presenting targets above and below central fixation, as well as to the left and right of center. Experiment 3 also showed that other mental sets, such as imagining a clock, result in attention’s being oriented in accordance with where the central digits are represented on a clock face. Together, these data indicate that the spatial representations and attentional orienting related to the perception of digits are both fragile and flexible and depend critically on the top-down spatial mental sets adopted by individuals.
Article PDF
References
Bächtold, D., Baumüller, M., &Brugger, P. (1998). Stimulus-response compatibility in representational space.Neuropsychologia,36, 731–735.
Broadbent, D. E. (1971).Decision and stress. London: Academic Press.
Driver, J., Davis, G., Ricciardelli, P., Kidd, P., Maxwell, E., &Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). Gaze perception triggers visuospatial orienting.Visual Cognition,6, 509–540.
Fischer, M. H., Castel, A. D., Dodd, M. D., &Pratt, J. (2003). Perceiving numbers causes spatial shifts of attention.Nature Neuroscience,6, 555–556.
Friesen, C. K., &Kingstone, A. (1998). The eyes have it! Reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,5, 490–495.
Friesen, C. K., Ristic, J., &Kingstone, A. (2004). Attentional effects of counterpredictive gaze and arrow cues.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,30, 319–329.
Galfano, G., Rusconi, E., &Umiltà, C. (2006). Number magnitude orients attention, but not against one’s will.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,13, 869–874.
Jonides, J. (1981). Voluntary versus automatic control over the mind’s eye’s movement. In J. [B.] Long & A. [D.] Baddeley (Eds.),Attention and performance IX (pp. 187–203). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kingstone, A., &Pratt, J. (1999). Inhibition of return is composed of attentional and oculomotor processes.Perception & Psychophysics,61, 1046–1054.
Langton, S. R. H., &Bruce, V. (1999). Reflexive social orienting in response to the social attention of others.Visual Cognition,6, 541–567.
Langton, S. R. H., &Bruce, V. (2000). Youmust see the point: Automatic processing of cues to the direction of social attention.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,26, 747–757.
Mowrer, O. H. (1940). Preparatory set (expectancy)-some methods of measurement.Psychological Review Monographs,52 (2, Whole No. 233).
Posner, M. I. (1978).Chronometric explorations of the mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,32, 3–25.
Posner, M. I., &Cohen, Y. (1984). Components of visual orienting. In H. Bouma & D. G. Bouwhuis (Eds.),Attention and performance X: Control of language processes (pp. 531–556). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Posner, M. I., Snyder, C. R. R, &Davidson, B. J. (1980). Attention and the detection of signals.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,109, 160–174.
Ristic, J., Friesen, C. K., &Kingstone, A. (2002). Are eyes special? It depends on how you look at it.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,9, 507–513.
Ristic, J., &Kingstone A. (2005). Taking control of reflexive social attention.Cognition,94, B55-B65.
Ristic, J., &Kingstone, A. (2006). Attention to arrows: Pointing to a new direction.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,59, 1921–1930.
Tipples, J. (2002). Eye gaze is not unique: Automatic orienting in response to uninformative arrows.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,9, 314–318.
Yantis, S., &Jonides, J. (1990). Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: Voluntary versus automatic allocation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 121–134.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
This research was supported by graduate fellowships awarded to J.R. from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research (MSFHR) and by support to A.K. from NSERC, the Hampton and Killam Foundations, MSFHR, and the Human Early Learning Partnership (HELP). The first two authors contributed equally, with first authorship being determined by a coin toss.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ristic, J., Wright, A. & Kingstone, A. The number line effect reflects top-down control. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 13, 862–868 (2006). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194010
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194010