Dissociative disorders and other psychopathological groups: exploring the differences through the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20)

Santo, Helena Maria Amaral do Espirito; Pio-Abreu, José Luís

doi:10.1590/S1516-44462006005000039

Abstracts

OBJECTIVE: The Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire is a self-report questionnaire that has proven to be a reliable and valid instrument. The objectives of this study were to validate the Portuguese version and to determine its capability to distinguish patients with dissociative disorders from others with psychopathological disorders. METHOD: 234 patients answered the translated version of Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire. The Portuguese Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule was used to validate clinical diagnosis. Patients with dissociative disorder (n = 113) were compared to a control group of 121 patients with various anxiety and depression disorders. RESULTS: Reliability measured by Cronbach's a was 0.88. The best performance of the Portuguese form was at a cut-off point of 35, which distinguishes between dissociative disorder and neurotic disorders with a good diagnostic efficacy (sensitivity = 0.73). The somatoform dissociation was significantly more frequent in dissociative disorder patients, conversion disorder patients and post-traumatic stress disorder patients. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that dissociative disorders can be differentiated from other psychiatric disorders through somatoform dissociation. The Portuguese version of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire has fine psychometric features that sustain its cross-cultural validity.

Somatoform disorders; Dissociative disorders; Psychiatric disorders; Hysteria; Validation studies

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi adaptar, validar e determinar a confiabilidade da versão portuguesa do Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire e determinar a sua capacidade de discriminar doentes que dissociam de outros doentes. Método: O Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire foi traduzido para o português e retrovertido para o inglês de forma a garantir a sua base conceitual. Os sujeitos responderam também à versão portuguesa do Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule de forma a validar o seu diagnóstico clínico. O estudo incluiu 234 sujeitos divididos entre 113 doentes com patologias dissociativas e 121 doentes com outras patologias do foro ansioso e depressivo. RESULTADOS: O Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire versão portuguesa mostrou o seu melhor desempenho no ponto de corte 35, apresentando uma sensibilidade de 0,73. O alfa de Cronbach revelou uma consistência interna de 0,88. A dissociação somatoforme foi significativamente mais freqüente nos doentes com patologias dissociativas, patologias conversivas e distúrbio de stress pós-traumático. CONCLUSÕES: A versão portuguesa do Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire mostrou-se um instrumento útil para discriminar doentes com patologia de foro dissociativo de outros doentes.

Transtornos somatoformes; Transtornos dissociativos; Transtornos psiquiátricos; Histeria; Estudos de validação

BRIEF REPORT

Dissociative disorders and other psychopathological groups: exploring the differences through the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20)

Perturbações dissociativas e outros grupos psicopatológicos: explorando as diferenças através do Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20)

Helena Maria Amaral do Espirito Santo^I; José Luís Pio-Abreu^II,III

^INeurosciences & Adult Psychopathology, Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Coimbra, Portugal

^IIHospital da Universidade de Coimbra, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal

^IIIFaculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal

^{Correspondence} Correspondence: Helena Espirito Santo Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Department of Psychology Rua Augusta, 46 3000-061 Coimbra, Portugal Tel: (+351) 239 483 055 / 239 482 659; Fax: (+351) 239 825 327 E-mail: espirito-santo@ismt.pt

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: The Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire is a self-report questionnaire that has proven to be a reliable and valid instrument. The objectives of this study were to validate the Portuguese version and to determine its capability to distinguish patients with dissociative disorders from others with psychopathological disorders.

METHOD: 234 patients answered the translated version of Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire. The Portuguese Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule was used to validate clinical diagnosis. Patients with dissociative disorder (n = 113) were compared to a control group of 121 patients with various anxiety and depression disorders.

RESULTS: Reliability measured by Cronbach's a was 0.88. The best performance of the Portuguese form was at a cut-off point of 35, which distinguishes between dissociative disorder and neurotic disorders with a good diagnostic efficacy (sensitivity = 0.73). The somatoform dissociation was significantly more frequent in dissociative disorder patients, conversion disorder patients and post-traumatic stress disorder patients.

CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that dissociative disorders can be differentiated from other psychiatric disorders through somatoform dissociation. The Portuguese version of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire has fine psychometric features that sustain its cross-cultural validity.

Descriptors: Somatoform disorders; Dissociative disorders; Psychiatric disorders; Hysteria; Validation studies

RESUMO

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi adaptar, validar e determinar a confiabilidade da versão portuguesa do Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire e determinar a sua capacidade de discriminar doentes que dissociam de outros doentes. Método: O Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire foi traduzido para o português e retrovertido para o inglês de forma a garantir a sua base conceitual. Os sujeitos responderam também à versão portuguesa do Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule de forma a validar o seu diagnóstico clínico. O estudo incluiu 234 sujeitos divididos entre 113 doentes com patologias dissociativas e 121 doentes com outras patologias do foro ansioso e depressivo.

RESULTADOS: O Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire versão portuguesa mostrou o seu melhor desempenho no ponto de corte 35, apresentando uma sensibilidade de 0,73. O alfa de Cronbach revelou uma consistência interna de 0,88. A dissociação somatoforme foi significativamente mais freqüente nos doentes com patologias dissociativas, patologias conversivas e distúrbio de stress pós-traumático.

CONCLUSÕES: A versão portuguesa do Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire mostrou-se um instrumento útil para discriminar doentes com patologia de foro dissociativo de outros doentes.

Descritores: Transtornos somatoformes; Transtornos dissociativos; Transtornos psiquiátricos; Histeria; Estudos de validação

Introduction

Hysteria has always been associated with the mind-body dualism. In ancient times, the wandering uterus was considered responsible for the disorder; in medieval times, the cause was believed to be the devil's possession. The notion that the mind affects the body appeared in the last two centuries.¹ In 19th century, Pierre Janet conceptualized hysteria as a relative inability to integrate sensory data in traumatized patients.² Sigmund Freud also believed hysteria was trauma generated,³ but later he viewed hysteria as generated by a neurotic defense mechanism and referred to its symptoms as conversion ones. Somatoform dissociation was the hallmark of this and other latter ideas.^1,4 Nijenhuis et al.⁵ introduced the term Somatoform dissociation to designate dissociative symptoms that involve the body and cannot be explained by organic disturbances.⁴ In the last decade, there has been increasing recognition of somatoform dissociation.^1,6-7 Actually, somatoform dissociation is conceptualized as a failure in the sensorial and motor integration, and it's considered to be linked to psychological trauma particularly related to life threatening episodes caused by other people.^1,4,8-9

Dissociation is a characteristic psychological process related to several disorders, from dissociative disorders (fugue, amnesia, and dissociative identity disorders¹⁰), to somatoform disorders (somatization and conversion disorders¹¹), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).^12-18 There are few studies on dissociative symptoms in conversion disorders.^11,19-24

The objective of the present study was to assess somatoform dissociation in dissociative disorders (dissociative disorder, conversion disorder, and PTSD) and compare them with other control disorders (anxiety and depression disorders). In order to do that, a screening tool for the somatoform dissociation was necessary and it did not exist in Portugal.

Method

1. Subjects

Subjects were consecutively selected from a psychiatric clinic (85), three psychotherapeutic centers (85), and a university (56 students). The questionnaires of eight patients were invalidated due to misplacing of answers on the scale. The dissociative patients were screened with a Portuguese Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule (DDIS-P) for corroboration of the clinical diagnosis. A "gold standard" to scrutinize the validity of the other psychopathological diagnoses was still needed, so the longitudinal evaluation performed by experts (trained psychiatrists and psychologists with mean time of professional experience of 22 years), using all data available (LEAD procedure) was considered as a standard for validating the clinical diagnoses.²⁵

The dissociative group consisted of three subgroups: 36 dissociative patients, 25 conversion patients and 49 PTSD patients. The distribution of these subjects in psychopathological subcategories is shown in table 1. Of these patients, 30% were male and 70% female; mean age was 30.9 ± 12.3 years. The patients in the control group suffered from depressive disorders (9.8%), panic disorder (7.3%), obsessive-compulsive disorder (10.3%), social phobia disorder (30%), and specific phobias (27%). Their mean age was 31.4 ± 11.6, 31% of the individuals of the control group were males, and 69% females. None of these patients met criteria for dissociative, conversion or post-traumatic stress disorders. There were no significant differences between the mean ages of the two groups (t = 0.28, df = 224), and gender (X²= 0.03, df = 1, n.s.). The risks and advantages of the study were elucidated orally and in writing to all the patients, and written informed consent was obtained from all, according to the Code of Medical Ethics of the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki.

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2. Instruments

The Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire is a 20-item self-report instrument that measures the intensity of somatoform dissociation, and was developed by Nijenhuis et al.²⁶

The Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule Portuguese adaptation (DDIS-P) is a structured interview developed by Ross et al.²⁷ Our adaptation allows the identification of all dissociative disorders, somatization disorder, and conversion disorder accordingly to DSM-IV diagnoses. The Portuguese version of the DDIS-P was investigated in a study with 41 patients and 29 normal control subjects and showed a good sensitivity rate (84%) and a specificity rate of 100%.²⁸

3. Procedures

The original SDQ-20 was translated into Portuguese by the two authors, and then back translated to English by an independent bilingual English specialist.²⁹ The provisional translation of the questionnaire was administered to seven patients so that they could report any problems regarding the understanding of the items. The final step was the comparison of the original and back-translated versions. There were no revisions needed. All participants gave informed consent and answered the questionnaires from 2004 through 2006.

The data analyses were carried out with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 11.0.3, for Mac OS X). Sensitivity and specificity were studied in order to verify accuracy of the SDQ-20. Reliability analysis with Cronbach's alpha was computed for all the subjects and the psychopathological groups. Mean and standard deviation for SDQ-20 were calculated for all groups of patients, and the average scores of the four groups were compared using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Results

1. Diagnostic accuracy

The best sensitivity-specificity relation of the SDQ-20 was established at a cut-off point of 35. The sensitivity rate was 0.73, the specificity rate was 0.66, positive predictive value was 0.54, and negative predictive value was 0.21. Fourteen patients with dissociative disorders, eleven patients with conversion disorder, and twenty-two patients with PTSD scored under the cut-off point of 35. Ninety-three control patients were below the cut-off.

2. Reliability analysis: internal consistency

For all 226 subjects results showed high corrected item-total correlations, ranging between r = 0.31 and r = 0.63. Internal consistency, measured by Cronbach's a was 0.94. Cronbach's a coefficients for each subsample were as follows: dissociative disorders a = 0.85, conversion disorders a = 0.91, PTSD a = 0.88, panic disorder a = 0.74, depression disorder a = 0.79, obsessive-compulsive disorder a = 0.74, social phobia disorder a = 0.79, and specific phobias a = 0.81. These values show that the SDQ-20 has internal consistency in all the samples.

3. Statistical description

For the dissociative patients the mean ± SD SDQ-20 score was 39.3 ± 11.9; for the conversion patients, it was 39.8 ± 14.2; and for PTSD patients, it was 38.7 ± 11.7. For control subjects, the mean ranged between 27.0 ± 6.9 (depression) and 33.2 ± 7.5 (obsessive-compulsive). The mean scores of these four groups differed significantly (ANOVA: F = 9.06, p < 0.0001). Bonferroni post-hoc multiple comparisons revealed that the significantly differences were between the dissociative disorders and the control disorders; it also showed that there weren't significantly differences within the dissociative disorders. These results are shown in detail in Table 1.

Discussion

As far as our knowledge goes, this is the first study to evaluate somatoform dissociation among Portuguese patients, and to compare dissociative patients with other diagnosis groups. The mean SDQ-20 score was higher in patients with a dissociative disorder than in those with control pathologies. The most important finding of this study is that somatoform dissociation is common in dissociative disorders, PTSD and conversion disorders, and it reinforces the idea of a connection between these disorders or their symptoms. Our anecdotic cases from clinical practice also support that idea. And we agree with Spitzer et al. and Nemiah regarding the assertion that conversion disorders should be re-categorized with the dissociative disorders.^11,19

Another important finding is that dissociation is very common in PTSD, which supports the idea of including a dissociative dimension in PTSD diagnostic criteria.^12,30 Considering recent evidence about two subtypes of PTSD a dissociative and a "hyperaroused" PTSD ,^31-32 our finding provides a relevant empirical contribution.

The SDQ-20 Portuguese version seems a useful instrument for the diagnosis of somatoform dissociation, and for discriminating between dissociative disorder patients and other psychiatric patients. Global scale reliability analyses reveal a good internal consistency, leading to the assumption that the questions converge to the same construct.

We should also mention some limitations of our study. There were few subjects in psychopathological subcategories to enable further analysis and the study of other associations. And there were more female than male subjects, as it usually happens in many psychopathological studies. In addition, this study, as pointed out by Steinberg,³³ is also limited by the vague construct of dissociation, which needs a more consistent conceptual foundation and screening tools with a more comprehensive assessment of this complex concept. Another limitation to the generalization of our results is the assessment of 165 patients who depended only upon LEAD procedure, which has been questioned in some studies.³⁴

Conclusions

The Portuguese SDQ-20 was able to discriminate between patients with a dissociative disorder and patients with other pathologies in a Portuguese population, and it has good psychometric parameters that sustain its validity in another culture.

Financing: None

Conflict of interests: None

Submitted: August 30, 2006

Accepted: October 24, 2006

1. van der Hart O, van Dijke A, van Son M, Steele K. Somatoform dissociation in traumatized World War I combat soldiers: a neglected clinical heritage. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):33-66.
2. Janet P. The mental state of hystericals. New York: Putnam; 1901. Reprint, Washington: University Publications of America; 1977.
3. Freud S. Estudos sobre a histeria. In: Edição standard brasileira das obras psicológicas completas de Sigmund Freud Rio de Janeiro: Imago; 1969. v. 2, p. 63-90.
4. Nijenhuis ER. Somatoform dissociation: Major symptoms of dissociative disorders. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):7-32.
5. Nijenhuis ER, Spinhoven P, van Dyck R, van der Hart O, Vanderlinden J. The development and psychometric characteristics of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20). J Nerv Ment Dis 1996;184(11):688-94.
6. Sar V, Kundakci T, Kézéltan E, Bakim B, Bozkurt O. Differentiating dissociative disorders from other diagnostic groups through somatoform dissociation in Turkey. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):67-80.
7. Cardena E, Nijenhuis ER. Embodied sorrow: a special issue on somatoform dissociation. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):1-6.
8. Waller G, Hamilton K, Elliot P, Lewendon J, Stopa L, Waters A, Kennedy F, Lee G, Pearson D, Kennerley H, Hargreaves I, Bashford V, Chalkley J. Somatoform dissociation, psychological dissociation, and specific forms of trauma. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):81-98.
9. Naring G, Nijenhuis ER. Relationships between self-reported potentially traumatizing events, psychoform and somatoform dissociation, and absorption, in two non-clinical populations. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2005;39(11-12):982-8.
10. van Ijzendoorn MH, Schuengel C. The measurement of dissociation in normal and clinical populations: meta-analytic validation of the dissociative experiences scale. Clin Psychol Rev 1996;16(5):365-82.
11. Spitzer C, Spelsberg B, Grabe HJ, Mundt B, Freyberger HJ. Dissociative experiences and psychopathology in conversion disorders. J Psychosom Res 1999;46(3):291-4.
12. Amdur RL, Liberzon I. Dimensionality of dissociation in subjects with PTSD. Dissociation 1996;9(2):118-24.
13. van der Kolk BA, Pelcovitz D, Roth S, Mandel FS, McFarlane A, Herman JL. Dissociation, and somatization affect dysregulation, the complex of adaptation to trauma. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153(7 Suppl):83-93.
14. Griffin MG, Resick PA, Mechanic MB. Objective assessment of peritraumatic dissociation: psychophysiological indicators. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154(8):1081-8.
15. Marshall RD, Spitzer R, Liebowitz MR. Review and critique of the new DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(11):1677-85.
16. Holmes EA, Brown RJ, Mansell W, Fearon RP, Hunter EC, Frasquilho F, Oakley DA. Are there two qualitatively distinct forms of dissociation? A review and some clinical implications. Clin Psychol Rev 2005;25(1):1-23
17. van der Hart O, Nijenhuis ER, Steele K. Dissociation: an insufficiently recognized major feature of complex posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 2005;18(5):413-23.
18. Olde E, van der Hart O, Kleber RJ, van Son MJ, Wijnen HA, Pop VJ. Peritraumatic dissociation and emotions as predictors of PTSD symptoms following childbirth. J Trauma Dissociation 2005;6(3):125-42.
19. Nemiah JC. Dissociation, conversion, and somatization. In: Spiegel D, Kluft RP, Loewenstein RJ, Nemiah JC, Putnam FW, Steinberg M, editors. Dissociative disorders: a clinical review Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press; 1993. p. 104-16.
20. Litwin R, Cardeña E. Demographic and seizure variables, but not hypnotizability or dissociation, differentiated psychogenic. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):99-122.
21. Scaer RC. The neurophysiology of dissociation and chronic disease. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2001;26(1):73-91.
22. Kruger C, van Staden W. Is conversion a dissociative symptom? Bridging Eastern Western Psychiatry 2003;1(1):88-94.
23. Kozlowska K. Healing the disembodied mind: contemporary models of conversion disorder. Harv Revf Psychiatry 2005;13(1):1-13.
24. Isaac M, Chand PK. Dissociative and conversion disorders: defining boundaries. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2006;19(1):61-6.
25. Spitzer RL. Psychiatric diagnosis: are clinicians still necessary? Compr Psychiatry 1983;24(5):399-411.
26. Nijenhuis ER, Spinhoven P, van Dyck R, van der Hart O, Vanderlinden J. Psychometric characteristics of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire: a replication study. Psychother Psychosom. 1998;67(1):17-23.
27. Ross CA, Heber S, Norton GR, Anderson G, Anderson D, Barchet P. The Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule: a structured interview. Dissociation 1989;2(3):169-89.
28. Espirito Santo, HA, Madeira, F, Pio Abreu, JL. Versão portuguesa do Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule (DDIS-P). Estudo preliminar de adaptação a uma amostra da população portuguesa. Unpublished manuscript, Universidade de Coimbra; 2006.
29. Brislin R, Lonner W, Thorndike R. Cross-cultural research methods New York, NY: John Wiley; 1973.
30. Bremner JD, Brett E. Trauma-related dissociative states and long-term psychopathology in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1997;10(1):37-49.
31. Fiszman A, Portella CM, Mendlowicz M, Volchan E, Figueira I. O Subtipo Dissociativo de TEPT. In: Mello MF, Bressan RA, Andreoli SB; Mari JJ, organizadores. Transtorno de Estresse Pós-traumático - TEPT. Diagnóstico e tratamento. São Paulo: Manole; 2006. p. 1-253.
32. Lanius RA, Hopper JW, Menon RS. Individual differences in a husband and wife who developed PTSD after a motor vehicle accident: A functional MRI case study. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160(4):667-9.
33. Steinberg M. Systematizing dissociation: symptomatology and diagnostic assessment. In: Spiegel D, editor. Dissociation. Culture, mind, and body Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1994. p. 59-88.
34. Kranzler HR, Tennen H, Babor TF, Kadden RM, Rounsaville BJ. Validity of the longitudinal, expert, all data procedure for psychiatric diagnosis in patients with psychoactive substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend 1997;45(1-2):93-104.

Correspondence:

Helena Espirito Santo

Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, Department of Psychology

Rua Augusta, 46

3000-061 Coimbra, Portugal

Tel: (+351) 239 483 055 / 239 482 659; Fax: (+351) 239 825 327

E-mail:

espirito-santo@ismt.pt

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
08 May 2007
Date of issue
Dec 2007

History

Received
30 Aug 2006
Accepted
24 Oct 2006

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

[1] 1. van der Hart O, van Dijke A, van Son M, Steele K. Somatoform dissociation in traumatized World War I combat soldiers: a neglected clinical heritage. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):33-66.

[2] 2. Janet P. The mental state of hystericals. New York: Putnam; 1901. Reprint, Washington: University Publications of America; 1977.

[3] 3. Freud S. Estudos sobre a histeria. In: Edição standard brasileira das obras psicológicas completas de Sigmund Freud Rio de Janeiro: Imago; 1969. v. 2, p. 63-90.

[4] 4. Nijenhuis ER. Somatoform dissociation: Major symptoms of dissociative disorders. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):7-32.

[5] 5. Nijenhuis ER, Spinhoven P, van Dyck R, van der Hart O, Vanderlinden J. The development and psychometric characteristics of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20). J Nerv Ment Dis 1996;184(11):688-94.

[6] 6. Sar V, Kundakci T, Kézéltan E, Bakim B, Bozkurt O. Differentiating dissociative disorders from other diagnostic groups through somatoform dissociation in Turkey. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):67-80.

[7] 7. Cardena E, Nijenhuis ER. Embodied sorrow: a special issue on somatoform dissociation. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):1-6.

[8] 8. Waller G, Hamilton K, Elliot P, Lewendon J, Stopa L, Waters A, Kennedy F, Lee G, Pearson D, Kennerley H, Hargreaves I, Bashford V, Chalkley J. Somatoform dissociation, psychological dissociation, and specific forms of trauma. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):81-98.

[9] 9. Naring G, Nijenhuis ER. Relationships between self-reported potentially traumatizing events, psychoform and somatoform dissociation, and absorption, in two non-clinical populations. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2005;39(11-12):982-8.

[10] 10. van Ijzendoorn MH, Schuengel C. The measurement of dissociation in normal and clinical populations: meta-analytic validation of the dissociative experiences scale. Clin Psychol Rev 1996;16(5):365-82.

[11] 11. Spitzer C, Spelsberg B, Grabe HJ, Mundt B, Freyberger HJ. Dissociative experiences and psychopathology in conversion disorders. J Psychosom Res 1999;46(3):291-4.

[12] 12. Amdur RL, Liberzon I. Dimensionality of dissociation in subjects with PTSD. Dissociation 1996;9(2):118-24.

[13] 13. van der Kolk BA, Pelcovitz D, Roth S, Mandel FS, McFarlane A, Herman JL. Dissociation, and somatization affect dysregulation, the complex of adaptation to trauma. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153(7 Suppl):83-93.

[14] 14. Griffin MG, Resick PA, Mechanic MB. Objective assessment of peritraumatic dissociation: psychophysiological indicators. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154(8):1081-8.

[15] 15. Marshall RD, Spitzer R, Liebowitz MR. Review and critique of the new DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(11):1677-85.

[16] 16. Holmes EA, Brown RJ, Mansell W, Fearon RP, Hunter EC, Frasquilho F, Oakley DA. Are there two qualitatively distinct forms of dissociation? A review and some clinical implications. Clin Psychol Rev 2005;25(1):1-23

[17] 17. van der Hart O, Nijenhuis ER, Steele K. Dissociation: an insufficiently recognized major feature of complex posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 2005;18(5):413-23.

[18] 18. Olde E, van der Hart O, Kleber RJ, van Son MJ, Wijnen HA, Pop VJ. Peritraumatic dissociation and emotions as predictors of PTSD symptoms following childbirth. J Trauma Dissociation 2005;6(3):125-42.

[19] 19. Nemiah JC. Dissociation, conversion, and somatization. In: Spiegel D, Kluft RP, Loewenstein RJ, Nemiah JC, Putnam FW, Steinberg M, editors. Dissociative disorders: a clinical review Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press; 1993. p. 104-16.

[20] 20. Litwin R, Cardeña E. Demographic and seizure variables, but not hypnotizability or dissociation, differentiated psychogenic. J Trauma Dissociation 2000;1(4):99-122.

[21] 21. Scaer RC. The neurophysiology of dissociation and chronic disease. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2001;26(1):73-91.

[22] 22. Kruger C, van Staden W. Is conversion a dissociative symptom? Bridging Eastern Western Psychiatry 2003;1(1):88-94.

[23] 23. Kozlowska K. Healing the disembodied mind: contemporary models of conversion disorder. Harv Revf Psychiatry 2005;13(1):1-13.

[24] 24. Isaac M, Chand PK. Dissociative and conversion disorders: defining boundaries. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2006;19(1):61-6.

[25] 25. Spitzer RL. Psychiatric diagnosis: are clinicians still necessary? Compr Psychiatry 1983;24(5):399-411.

[26] 26. Nijenhuis ER, Spinhoven P, van Dyck R, van der Hart O, Vanderlinden J. Psychometric characteristics of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire: a replication study. Psychother Psychosom. 1998;67(1):17-23.

[27] 27. Ross CA, Heber S, Norton GR, Anderson G, Anderson D, Barchet P. The Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule: a structured interview. Dissociation 1989;2(3):169-89.

[28] 28. Espirito Santo, HA, Madeira, F, Pio Abreu, JL. Versão portuguesa do Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule (DDIS-P). Estudo preliminar de adaptação a uma amostra da população portuguesa. Unpublished manuscript, Universidade de Coimbra; 2006.

[29] 29. Brislin R, Lonner W, Thorndike R. Cross-cultural research methods New York, NY: John Wiley; 1973.

[30] 30. Bremner JD, Brett E. Trauma-related dissociative states and long-term psychopathology in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1997;10(1):37-49.

[31] 31. Fiszman A, Portella CM, Mendlowicz M, Volchan E, Figueira I. O Subtipo Dissociativo de TEPT. In: Mello MF, Bressan RA, Andreoli SB; Mari JJ, organizadores. Transtorno de Estresse Pós-traumático - TEPT. Diagnóstico e tratamento. São Paulo: Manole; 2006. p. 1-253.

[32] 32. Lanius RA, Hopper JW, Menon RS. Individual differences in a husband and wife who developed PTSD after a motor vehicle accident: A functional MRI case study. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160(4):667-9.

[33] 33. Steinberg M. Systematizing dissociation: symptomatology and diagnostic assessment. In: Spiegel D, editor. Dissociation. Culture, mind, and body Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1994. p. 59-88.

[34] 34. Kranzler HR, Tennen H, Babor TF, Kadden RM, Rounsaville BJ. Validity of the longitudinal, expert, all data procedure for psychiatric diagnosis in patients with psychoactive substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend 1997;45(1-2):93-104.

Brasil

Brasil

Dissociative disorders and other psychopathological groups: exploring the differences through the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20)

Perturbações dissociativas e outros grupos psicopatológicos: explorando as diferenças através do Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20)

Abstracts

Publication Dates

History