Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

And by the way, do you know he thinks he’s a girl? The failures of law, policy and legal representation for transgender youth in juvenile delinquency courts

  • Special Issue Article
  • Published:
Sexuality Research & Social Policy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Because of the persistence of bias and discrimination against transgender people generally, the societal lack of understanding of gender and sexuality, and a distrust of difference, transgender youth are at high risk for involvement in the juvenile justice system. For many of these youth, their gender identity is relevant both to why they were arrested and to their needs once they are brought into the courtroom. This article discusses how law, policy, and legal representation are regularly failing transgender youth in juvenile delinquency systems throughout the United States. The author concludes by posing policy and system recommendations that will address these failures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams v. Carlson, 488 F.2d 619 (7th Cir. 1973).

  • Alexander S. v. Boyd, 876 F. Supp. 773 (D.S.C. 1995), aff’d in part and rev’d in part on other grounds, 113 F.3d 1373 (4th Cir. 1997), cert. denied, 118 S.Ct. 880 (1998).

  • Allard v. Gomez, 9 Fed. Appx. 793 (9th Cir. 2001).

  • A.M. v. Luzerne County Juvenile Detention Ctr., 372 F.3d 572 (3d Cir. 2004).

  • American Bar Association. (2000–2007). Model Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 1.14 (a). Retrieved November 14, 2007, from http://www.abanet.org/cpr/mrpc/rule1_14.html

  • American Council of Chief Defenders & National Juvenile Defender Center. (2005, January). Ten core principles for providing quality delinquency representation through indigent defense delivery systems. Washington, DC: Authors.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amnesty International. (2005, September 22). Stonewalled: Police abuse and misconduct against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people in the U.S. Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR511222005

  • Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2007). Juvenile Detention Alternatives Initiative. Retrieved November 14, 2007, from http://www.aecf.org/MajorInitiatives/JuvenileDetentionAlternativesInitiative.aspx

  • Berberet, H. (2006). Putting the pieces together for queer youth: A model of integrated assessment of need and program planning. Child Welfare: Journal of Policy, Practice, and Program, 85, 361–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calvin, E. (2004). Legal strategies to reduce the unnecessary detention of children. Washington, DC: National Juvenile Defender Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calvin, E., Marcus, S., Oleyer, G., & Scali, M. (2006). Juvenile defender delinquency notebook (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Juvenile Defender Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coalition for Juvenile Justice. (2000). Handle with care: Serving the mental health needs of young offenders— Coalition for Juvenile Justice 2000 annual report. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, B. N., Stewart, A. J., Ginzler, J. A., & Cauce, A. M. (2002). Challenges faced by homeless sexual minorities: Comparison of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender homeless adolescents with their heterosexual counterparts. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 773–777.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conward, C. (2001). Where have all the children gone? A look at incarcerated youth in America. William Mitchell Law Review, 27, 2445–2450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doe v. Bell, 754 N.Y.S.2d 846 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 2003).

  • Doe v. Yunits, 2000 WL 33162199 (Mass. Super. 2000).

  • Fedders, B. (2006). Coming out for kids: Recognizing, respecting and representing LGBTQ youth. Nevada Law Journal, 6, 774–804.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feinstein, R., Greenblatt, A., Hass, L., Kohn, S., & Rana, J. (2001). Justice for all? A report on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered youth in the New York juvenile justice system. New York: Lesbian and Gay Project of the Urban Justice Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelder, M., & Marks, I. (1969). Aversion treatment in transvestism and transsexualism. In R. Green & J. Money (Eds.), Transsexualism and sex reassignment (pp. 383–413). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henkle v. Gregory, 50 F.Supp.2d 1067 (D.Nev. 2001).

  • Henning, K. (2005). Loyalty, paternalism, and rights: Client counseling theory and the role of child’s counsel in delinquency cases. Notre Dame Law Review, 81, 245–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hsia, H., Bridges, G., & McHale, R. (2004). Disproportionate minority confinement: 2002 update. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Human Rights Watch. (2001). Hatred in the hallways: Violence and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students in U.S. schools. New York: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • In re Gault, 387 U.S. 1 (1967).

  • In re Molina, 132 N.C. App. 373 (1999).

  • Institute of Judicial Administration & American Bar Association. (1980a). Juvenile justice standards, volume 6: Standards relating to counsel for private parties. New York: Authors.

    Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Judicial Administration & American Bar Association. (1980b). Juvenile justice standards, volume 6: Standards relating to disposition. New York: Authors.

    Google Scholar 

  • Israel, G. E., & Tarver, D. E. I., II. (1997). Transgender care: Recommended guidelines, practical information, and personal accounts. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson v. Johnson, 118F.Supp.2d 278 (ND.NY. 2000).

  • John L. v. Adams, 969 F.2d 228 (6th Cir. 1992).

  • Keker v. Procunier, 398 F. Supp. 756, 762 (E.D. Cal. 1975).

  • Kent v. United States, 383 U.S. 541, 554 (1966).

  • Klein, R. (1998). Group work practice with transgendered male to female sex workers. In G. Mallon (Ed.), Social services with transgendered youth (pp. 95–111). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosciw, J. (2004). The 2003 national school climate survey: The school-related experiences of our nation’s lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth. New York: Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosciw, J. (2006). The 2005 national school climate survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosilek v. Malone, 221 F.Supp. 2d 156 (Mass. Dist. Ct. 2001).

  • Mallon, G. (1999). Practice with transgendered children. In G. Mallon (Ed.), Social services with transgendered youth (pp. 49, 55–58). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mallon, G. P., & DeCrescenzo, T. (2006). Transgender children and youth: A child welfare perspective. Child Welfare: Journal of Policy, Practice and Program, 85, 215–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendel, R. A. (2007). Beyond detention: System transformation through juvenile detention reform. Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meriwether v. Faulkner, 821 F.2d 408, 413 (7th Cir. 1987).

  • Meyer, W. J., III, Bockting, W. O., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Coleman, E., Di Ceglie, D., Devor, H., et al. (2001, February). The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association’s standards of care for gender identity disorders, sixth version. Minneapolis, MN: Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association. Retrieved April 10, 2006, from http://www.hbigda.org/Documents2/socv6.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Nabozny v. Podlesny, 92 F.3d 446 (7th Cir. 1996).

  • National Center for Juvenile Justice. (2006). How do the states define the purposes of their juvenile courts as of March 2005? Retrieved June 19, 2007, from http://www.ncjj.org/stateprofiles/overviews/faq9.asp

  • National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. (2005). Juvenile delinquency guidelines: Improving court practice in juvenile delinquency cases. Reno, NV: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Council on Crime and Delinquency. (2007). And justice for some: Differential treatment of youth of color in the justice system. Oakland, CA: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. (2007, January 30). Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth: An epidemic ofhomelessness. New York: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Juvenile Defender Center. (2005, December). Juvenile indigent defense delivery and oversight systems. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Juvenile Defender Center. (2007). Principles in practice: Promoting accountability, safety, and fairness injuvenile delinquency proceedings. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Shaughnessy, M., Russell, S., Heck, K., Calhoun, C., & Laub, C. (2004). A safe place to learn: Consequences of harassment based on actual or perceived sexual orientation or gender non-conformity and steps for making schools safer. San Francisco: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parent, D., Lieter, V., Kennedy, S., Livens, L., Wentworth, D., & Wilcox, S. (2004). Conditions of confinement: Juvenile detention and corrections facilities. Retrieved June 19, 2007, from http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org/publications/dc_facilities.html

  • Phillips v. Michigan Dep’t. of Corr., 731 F.Supp. 792 (W.D. Mich. 1990).

  • Pinard, M. (2006). The logistical and ethical difficulties of informing juveniles about the collateral consequences of adjudications. Nevada Law Journal, 6, 1111–1127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poe-Yamagata, E., & Jones, M. A. (2000). And justice for some: Differential treatment of minority youth in the justice system. Retrieved June 19, 2007, from http:// www.buildingblocksforyouth.org/justiceforsome/jfs.pdf

  • Pope, C. E., Lovell, R., & Hsia, H. M. (2002). Disproportionate minority confinement: A review of the research literature from 1989 through 2001. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396, 419 (1974).

  • Puritz, P., Burrell, S., Schwartz, R., Soler, M., & Worboys, L. A. (1995, December). A callforjustice: An assessment of access to counsel and quality of representation in delinquency proceedings. Washington, DC: National Juvenile Defender Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puritz, P., & Majd, K. (2007). Ensuring authentic youth participation in delinquency cases: Creating a paradigm for specialized juvenile defense practice. Family Court Review, 45, 466–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R.G. v. Koller, 415 F. Supp.2d 1129 (D. Hawai’i, 2006).

  • Ryan, C., & Diaz, R. (2005, February). Family responses as a source of risk and resiliency for LGBT youth. Paper presented at the Child Welfare League of America Preconference Institute, Washington, DC.

  • Scholinski, D. (1997). The last time I wore a dress. New York: Riverhead Hardcover.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shioutakon v. District of Columbia, 236 F.2d 666 (D.C. Cir. 1956).

  • Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile Residential Facility Census, 2002: Selected findings. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 national report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spade, D. (2003). Rethinking medicine, re/modeling gender. Berkeley Women’s Law Journal, 18, 34–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, C., Sommer, S., & Moff, J. (2001). Youth in the margins: A report on the unmet needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adolescents in foster care. New York: Lambda Legal.

    Google Scholar 

  • University of Nevada, Las Vegas. (2006). Proceedings of the UNLV Conference on Representing Children in Families: Children’s Advocacy and Justice Ten Years After Fordham—Recommendations of the conference. Nevada Law Journal, 6, 592–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. v. Janis, 820 F. Supp. 512 (S.D. Cal. 1992).

  • U.S. v. Juvenile, 347 F.3d 778 (9th Cir. 2003).

  • Wilber, S., Ryan R., & Marksamer, J. (2006). CWLA best practice guidelines: Serving LGBT youth in out-of-home care. Atlanta, GA: Child Welfare League of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe v. Horne, 130 F.Supp. 2d 648 (E.D. Pa. 2001).

  • Woronoff, R., Estrada, R., & Sommer, S. (2006). Out of the margins: A report on regional listening forums highlighting the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning youth in care. Atlanta, GA: Child Welfare League of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Youngberg v. Romeo, 457 U.S. 307 (1982).

  • Younger v. Gilmore, 404 U.S. 15 (1971).

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jody Marksamer.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Marksamer, J. And by the way, do you know he thinks he’s a girl? The failures of law, policy and legal representation for transgender youth in juvenile delinquency courts. Sex Res Soc Policy 5, 72–92 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1525/srsp.2008.5.1.72

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/srsp.2008.5.1.72

Key words

Navigation