Population.

Selected studies needed to include parents of children and adolescents aged 1 to 18 years diagnosed with at least one of the four selected NDDs: ASD, ID, ADHD or CP as defined above.

Intervention.

This systematic review included intervention studies conducted through individual or group sessions in one or more South Asian countries that involved parents as implementers. This review has also included studies that adapted intervention programmes developed in high-income countries and applied them in a South Asian country [23].

Outcomes.

The systematic review included studies that reported on changes either in parent outcomes, child outcomes or both. Parent outcomes included improvement in parent-child interaction, parental social and communication skills, and parental knowledge of NDDs. Child outcomes included improvement of motor, cognitive, social or language development, reductions in violent or self-injurious behaviour or temper tantrums, or improvements in activities of daily living, learning ability, impulse control, academic performance or social withdrawal.

Search strategy.

We followed the PRISMA Guidelines of reporting [69]. The following databases were searched comprehensively for relevant articles: PubMed, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The search terms for identifying relevant articles is described in the S3 Table.

Initial search terms included “Autism” OR “Autistic” OR “Autism Spectrum Disorders,” “Intellectual Disability” OR “Mental Retardation,” and “Parental Training” OR “Parent mediated programmes,” OR “Parental intervention programmes” and the name of each South Asian country separated by “OR”. A secondary search included “Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder” OR “Cerebral Palsy” OR “Parent Training” OR “Parent mediated programmes,” OR “Parental intervention programmes” with the name of each South Asian country separated by “OR.” Additional articles were identified using the reference lists from the retrieved articles and the Google Scholar database.

Two reviewers (KNK and NS) independently searched the literature and cross-checked selected studies to ensure the quality and accuracy of the information using a priori prioritization and sequential exclusion techniques. A third reviewer (MSI) resolved any disagreements raised between the first two reviewers (KNK and NS). Overall, disagreements were found in 2.4% of articles (30/1231). The value of kappa statistics was 0.84 indicating strong agreement between the two reviewers. Duplicate articles were removed.

Quality assessment.

Study quality was assessed according to standard quality assessment criteria described by Kmet [70, 71]. The Kmet appraisal checklist uses 14 items, each with a 3-point ordinal system (i.e., yes, partial, and no) to assess the methodological quality of a research paper [70, 71]. Two reviewers independently reviewed each individual study regarding study objectives, methodology, study design, eligibility criteria, appropriate sample size and power, description of experimental and control groups, random allocation of participants, blinding procedures, descriptions of the analytic methods, estimation of outcome variance, methods for controlling potential confounder(s), follow-up length, retention rate, generalizability and acceptability of the findings. Fourteen areas were scored based on the degree to which the specific criteria were met (“yes” = 2, “partial” = 1 and “no” = 0). A summary score was calculated for each study by summing area scores and dividing by the total possible score. Scores were categorized into four quality levels prior to selection for final analysis: >80% = strong, 70–80% = good, 50–69% = adequate, and <50% = poor. S1 Table includes the overall methodological quality scores and the quality of evidence that is identified by following the Kmet guidelines (S1 Table).

Data management and analysis.

Title and abstract screenings were completed independently by two reviewers (KNK and MSI). Any discrepancies were resolved by a 3rd reviewer (NS). Full text screenings of eligible manuscripts were completed by KNK and NS and information collected in a data extraction sheet in Microsoft Excel (version 2013). Characteristics of interest included: (1) study title, (2) year of publication, (3) country where the study was conducted, (4) objectives of the study, (5) sample description, (6) type of intervention and (7) key findings, including effect size of outcomes. Information from all eligible studies was synthesized for each NDD separately and a narrative synthesis was used to summarize findings for each NDD.

(i) Study characteristics.

Nine studies conducted between January 2010 and January 2020 among parents of children or adolescents with ASD were included in the final analyses. Eight studies were implemented in India, and one study was collaboratively implemented in both India and Pakistan.

(ii) Tools used.

For participant inclusion, only three of nine studies used a formal diagnostic tool, with two using the INCLEN Diagnostic Tool for Autism (Juneja et al., 2014) and one used the ADOS tool developed by C Lord et al. in 1989 [72–74]. None of these studies described adaptation or validation of these tools for the study context. The other six studies used DSM (4) or ICD-10 (1) or clinical (1) criteria implemented by clinicians. Assessment tools included ASD screening tests/checklists, ASD observation scales, and assessments of adaptive functioning, social maturity, speech-language skills, and general development of young children. The Vineland Social Maturity Scale (VSMS) is an international tool that was developed by an American psychologist Edgar Arnold Doll in 1986. It is an assessment tool that measures the adaptive skills of the child in eight areas. No information was provided as to whether the studies used a language/culture adapted version, or the original version developed in English. This scale is used to assess children or adolescents aged 0–16 years in the areas of self-help general, self-help dressing, self-help eating, self- direction, locomotion, communication, occupation and socialization (Table 1).

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Table 1. Characteristics of the included studies for children and adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247432.t001

(iii) Methodologies.

Among the nine studies, five were RCTs [23, 32, 33, 52, 65] and four were pre-post intervention studies [31, 75–77]. The RCTs implemented locally customized intervention programmes, including a multi-component early intervention package, interactive group psychoeducation and a naturalistic approach for scaffolding and developing communication skills to train parents about various aspects of ASD. The naturalistic approach was based on the Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBI), which involve the use of natural contingencies and behavior strategies in natural settings with some sharing of control between the child and therapist, and targeted skills areas that are commonly challenging for children on the autism spectrum [52, 78]. The pre-post studies integrated multiple intervention components that addressed adaptive behaviour and behaviour problems (Table 1).

(iv) Quality.

By Kmet criteria, six studies were of strong quality, one was good, and two studies were of adequate quality (S1 Table). The two RCTs clearly described the process of recruiting participants and drop out or refusal to participate. One of the RCTs was conducted in two different countries [23]. The four pre-post intervention studies all had methodological concerns. All had a small sample sizes and did not include a control arm to negate potential confounding factors. One pre-post study was limited by a retrospective study design [75] (Table 1)

(v) Adaptation process of the intervention programmes.

Four studies adapted their interventions from the other countries. Rahman et al. (2016) and Divan et al. (2019) adapted intervention programmes from the United Kingdom that were later translated and culturally adapted [23, 65]. Another study conducted in South India applied a brief parent-mediated intervention adapted from good intervention practices utilized in specialist child psychiatry centre in India that had been primarily adapted from USA-based programmes. These included the principles of Naturalistic Developmental Behavioural Interventions (NDBI) and family friendly behavioural strategies [32]. A fourth study, which was conducted in India, incorporated Western ASD-training methods (e.g., TEACCH, Applied Behavioural Analysis, Floor time) with cultural adaptations, but there was no detailed information about the adaptation process [27] (Table 1).

(vi) Components of the interventions.

Parent components: Several intervention programmes were implemented in these studies. Rahman et al. (2016) customized parent-mediated interventions for ASD in South Asia (such as PASS, which shares the core theoretical foundations of the original Pre-school Autism Communication Therapy, PACT), while in another study western ASD-training methods were incorporated with the necessary cultural adaptations [23, 31]. In 2019, an extended study of the original PASS was presented called PASS Plus. This included new modules to address co-morbidity in a more demanding setting. Lay health workers were trained to support parents in implementing this intervention [65]. One of the studies utilized clinic-based, multi-component early intervention packages to teach parents about ASD. Intervention components included standard intervention protocols, the Psycho-Education Profile intervention (PEP-R), and the Carolina Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs (CCITSN) [75] (Table 1 and S2.1 Table in S2 Table). Out of nine studies on ASD only two studies assessed impact of parent mediated training programs on the parental knowledge.

Child and adolescents components: One individualized programme was designed to improve the attention, communication, social skills, and behavior of children or adolescents. Juneja et al. (2012) used principles of the Naturalistic/Milieu method to create situations during family daily activities that supported development of joint attention behaviours, such as index finger pointing, gaze switching, showing, and holding out objects [77]. A similar study by Manohar et al. (2019) also involved Naturalistic Developmental Behavioural Interventions (NDBI) to teach developmentally appropriate and prerequisite skills in a naturalistic environment using family friendly behavioural strategies [52] (Table 1).

(vii) Modality of the interventions.

Settings: Eight studies were conducted in clinic/hospital settings, and one was carried out in a training centre. Duration: The duration of intervention varied from three to six months. Service providers: Five studies reported that the interventions were delivered by therapists and the other studies reported that various providers other than therapists delivered the intervention, including pediatricians (2 studies), special educators (1 study), a trainer (1 study), a psychiatrist (1 study), a psychologist (1 study), and health workers (1 study). Ways of delivering: The intervention programmes were delivered by closed-group sessions [32], one-on-one sessions [31], and home-based sessions [23, 33, 52, 65, 75–77]. Time to evaluation or end-line: Duration of follow up varied from 3 months to 6 months after intervention. Dropout rate: Among 9 studies, 5 mentioned the dropout rate of participants, with a range between 5% and 56% of participants not completing the program [23, 31, 52, 65, 77] (Table 1).

(viii) Changes in the outcome.

Parent outcome: All studies except one (Juneja et al., 2012) mentioned a parent outcome [77]. Two studies found that parent-mediated interventions had a positive impact on parent-child interactions and parental synchronous interactions, improved the adaptive behaviour of children, and increased fathers’ involvement in the intervention process [23, 68]. The remaining two RCTs showed improvement in parental depressive symptoms, reduced parent distress and improved family coping [52, 65]. One pre–post intervention study found that parents were less likely to compare their children to other children after the intervention, suggesting increased acceptance of their child’s diagnosis [31]. However, the programme was implemented among families with higher income, and the parents were highly educated [31], factors which may cause a bias and reduce generalizability of findings [79, 80]. Reassuringly, a separate study additionally demonstrated changes in the efficacy of parents who were illiterate and belonged to low socioeconomic classes [68] (Table 1).

Child and adolescent outcome: All nine studies highlighted at least one child. Two pre-post studies and one RCT suggested improvements in perception, fine and gross motor skills, eye-hand coordination, cognitive performance and/or verbal skills among children with mild to moderate and severe ASD [33, 75, 76]. One of these pre-post intervention studies showed strong effects on adaptive behaviour and behavioural problems as well [75]. Three studies suggested significant improvements in general development, social skills, expressive language, adaptive behaviour including socialization, social age, self-help dressing and eating, as well as improvement in behaviour and reduction in symptoms on the Childhood Autism Rating Scale [76, 77, 81]. Two studies reported improvement in communication initiations with parents and in child play skills [23, 32] (Table 1).

(i) Study characteristics.

Six studies were conducted among parents of children or adolescents with ID. Five were carried out in India and one in Pakistan.

(ii) Tools used.

For participant inclusion, one study used the Behavioral Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation (BASIC-MR), which was developed in the studies’ regional context and then locally customized; two studies used the BINET-KAMAL scale of intelligence, a validated Indian adaptation of the Kamath’s Test of Intelligence; one study used DSM-IV criteria and one did not provide information on diagnosis. Tools included assessments of behaviour, general development, intelligence, adaptive functioning, and social maturity, as well as evaluations of parent attitudes towards their children with ID and goal attainment. Two studies in India used a tool solely developed in the Indian context to assess behaviour change among children, the BASIC-MR (Behavioural Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation) and PAM-ID (Parental Attitude Scale, Bhatti et al. 1985) [51, 81, 82] (Table 2).

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Table 2. Characteristics of the included studies for children and adolescents with Intellectual Disability (ID).

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(iii) Methodologies.

Two of the studies were RCTs and four were pre-post studies. One pre-post study of a community-based intervention programme for parents of children or adolescents with ID in India had a large sample size and included follow up after the intervention program, making it generalizable to a wider range of populations [83]. In another pre-post study, the duration of the in-patient stay was much shorter, and in the other two pre-post studies the sample sizes were very small, [51, 84, 85] (Table 2).

(iv) Quality.

According to Kmet criteria, three studies were of strong quality, two were good, and one was of adequate quality. The two RCTs described the eligible populations, tools and intervention procedures in details [49, 81]. The sample size of three pre-post studies was quite low and it is difficult to compare the effectiveness of these studies [51, 84, 85] (S1 Table).

(v) Adaptation process of the intervention programmes.

Only two studies mentioned adaptation of an intervention from a foreign country. In Paul, Jacob, et al. (1999), the training plan for children was adapted from both Progress Assessment Chart (UK) and the Carolina Curriculum for Infant and Toddlers with Special Needs (Baltimore, USA) [81]. In addition, Kurani et al. (2009) [51] adapted the Portage Parent Program, widely used in India since 1980, to conduct an effective program for native language speakers. This study adopted the Parental Involvement/Engagement Scale for interpreting the parental involvement in terms of child-oriented teaching parents, planning and cooperation by both teachers and parents, child involvement in naturally occurring social settings, within school, home and community [51]. Lakhan (2014) adopted the Behavioural Assessment Scales for Indian children with Mental Retardation (BASIC-MR), which lists 75 behavioural problems in 10 domains [83]. The BASIC-MR was developed locally in India for children in special needs schools [86] (Table 2).

(vi) Components of interventions.

Parent components: Five of the studies reported on parent-focused interventions. Mohsin et al. (2011) implemented a functional skills intervention program that included a diaries method to identify functional tasks and a Weekly Evolution Report (WER) to deliver the teaching or training at the next home visit [85]. In addition to home visits and family meetings, Kurani et al. (2009) implemented therapeutic and classroom interventions, along with parent counseling and referrals to doctors [51]. Narayanan et al. (1988) implemented an intervention where parents were trained on sensory-motor stimulation and development of motor, language, and self-help skills [84]. Lakhan (2014) trained parents to manage hyperactive behaviours, through praising a child’s good activities, over-correction of children’s misbehavior, training on physical restraining if required, and other techniques [83]. Parents were also encouraged to involve their children in household activities wherever possible [71]. Interactive Group Psycho education (IGP) was conducted by psychologists in Paul, Jacob et al. (1999) to teach parents child-rearing skills, developmental milestones and delays, common causes of intellectual disability, comorbidities, functional skills, problem behaviour, and behavioural intervention techniques, as well as to provide information on sexuality and marriage and legal and social support systems. The one study conducted in Pakistan included parent education about ASD and formal training in a developmental approach to address child symptoms during home visits [81] (Table 2) and (S2.2 Table in S2 Table).

Child and components: Five studies focused interventions on the child. Two studies implemented medication interventions in addition to therapeutic measures [33, 73]. Two studies trained children or adolescents in self-care, social skills, pre-vocational skills, and control of problematic behaviours [48, 74] (Table 2).

(vii) Modality of the intervention.

Setting: Three studies were conducted in clinic/hospital settings, two in community settings and only one in a school setting. Duration: The duration of the intervention ranged from one week to one year. Service providers: Three studies reported that teachers or special educators and occupational therapists provided the intervention followed by psychiatrists (3), psychologists (2), workers from community-based rehabilitation programmes (2) and field assistants (1). In addition, nurses (1), specialists (e.g., speech-language therapists and professionals in ID also contributed. Ways of delivering: The intervention programmes were mainly delivered in closed group sessions (4), although a camp setting (1) and one-on-one sessions (1) were also applied. Time to evaluation or end-line: The time from intervention end to evaluation ranged from a minimum of one week to a maximum three months. Dropout rate: Three studies registered the dropout rate of participants, and this ranged from 9% to 65% [49, 81, 83] (Table 2).

(viii) Changes in the outcome.

Parent outcome: All 6 studies reported a parent outcome, including significant improvements in parent attitude and knowledge. In addition, one study highlighted improved parent motivation to teach their children [73] (Table 2). Out of five studies on ID, only one study assessed impact on parental knowledge using a total parental attitude scale.

Child and adolescent outcome: Three studies reported on child outcomes. One intervention based on IGP reduced the degree of disability and improved child self-help, eating and socialization skills [49, 81]. Two pre-post studies reported improvements in motor, cognitive, social and language development, as well as reduction of violent or self-injurious behaviour and temper tantrums [51, 83] (Table 2).

(ⅰ) Study characteristics.

Four studies were conducted among parents of children or adolescents with ADHD, two in Pakistan and two in India.

(ⅱ) Tools used.

For participant inclusion, two studies used the Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating scale (Barkley, 1997) to gather symptoms and did not further discuss diagnostic criteria, one used DSM-V diagnostic criteria implemented by a consulting psychiatrist, and one reported using ICD-10 criteria. Assessment tools utilized included the Disruptive Behaviour Disorders Rating Scale (DBDRS) for ADHD screening and the Home Situations Questionnaire (HSQ) and School Situations Questionnaire (SSQ) for assessing the severity of ADHD symptoms [16, 87, 88], as well as the Color Cancellation test was used to assess attention, concentration and impulsivity, the ADHD rating scale to measure the severity of ADHD and an academic performance rating scale to asses child academic performance, Barkley’s School Situations Questionnaire (BSSQ) to assess situational variations in child behaviour, and the Family assessment Schedule to assess family stress [89] (Table 3).

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Table 3. Characteristics of the included studies for children and adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

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(iii) Methodologies.

One study implemented a quasi-experimental design; the rest were pre-post studies. The quasi-experimental study was completed in Pakistan and included only participants from the city of Islamabad [16]. Among the pre-post studies, a multimodal intervention programme was conducted in India in which Group I received medical management with parent counseling and Group II, the multimodal group, received routine medical management, parent training, and attention enhancement training [87]. Two studies evaluated a behavioural parent training programme and trained parents by multi-point video-conferencing [90] (Table 3).

(iv) Quality.

One study was of strong quality, and three studies were of adequate quality using the Kmet criteria. Methodological limitations of two of the three pre-post studies included a small sample size, outcomes measured only by parent and teacher report [87, 89] and a high dropout rate in one study [90]. One study did not report on blinding of investigators, so the outcome could be exposed to bias [90]. In the quasi-experimental study, participants were not randomly assigned to treatment and control groups, and included participants from the city, hence it is less likely to be generalizable to rural communities [16]. Finally, one pre-post study was more promising due to the involvement of random allocation and parallel design [82] (Table 3).

(v) Adaptation process of the intervention programmes.

Two studies adapted a manual from Barkley Behavioural Parental Program (1997) [88]. The adaptation process involved translation and extensive literature reviews to support cultural adaptation and validation [16, 87] (Table 3).

(vi) Components of the intervention.

Parent components: All 4 programs reported on parent intervention. Two intervention programmes used a parent training manual adapted from Defiant Children: A Clinician’s Manual for Assessment and Parent Training, Barkley Behaviour Parental Program (1997) [88]. The manual contains information about ADHD, such as the causes of defiant behaviour in children with ADHD and what factors affect it [16, 91]. One intervention study trained parents to manage child behaviour problems using a visual educational package [16]. Another intervention programme used the same training manual, but a ten-step programme was set up to teach principles of behavioural management and tasks for parental attending skills [87]. This programme also included Attention Enhancement Training and Medication Management. Finally, Shah et al. (2019) incorporated culturally relevant methods and content to improve awareness, parent-child relations, family environment, and specific skills to handle consequences of ADHD effectively and confidently [90] (Table 3).

Child and adolescent components: Only one of the four studies conducted a programme designed to improve the child’s attention, communication, social skills, and behaviour. Rejani et al. (2012) used the manual of Defiant Children (Barkley, 1997) to create situations during family daily activities to improve attention deficit and impulsivity. These activities used material available at home, such as grain sorting, clay modelling, mazes, beading and matching figures [87, 88]. Medication management under the supervision of the psychiatry consultant was an additional component of this study (Table 3).

(vii) Modality of the interventions.

Settings: All four studies were conducted in clinic/hospital settings [16, 87, 89, 90]. Duration: The length of intervention varied from 2.5 to four months [16, 87, 89, 90]. Service providers: Interventions were provided by therapists (2), clinicians (1), psychiatry consultant (1), psychology interns and graduate students (1). Ways of delivering: The intervention programmes were delivered by closed group sessions, one-on-one sessions and home-based sessions [16, 87, 89, 90] and through electronic media-like video conferencing [90]. Time to evaluation or end-line: Evaluations were conducted after ten weeks to four months of intervention. Dropout rate: Three out of four studies mentioned a dropout rate, which ranged from 43% to 56.4% (Table 3 and S2.3 Table in S2 Table).

(viii) Changes in outcome.

Parent outcome: All four studies reported on parent outcomes. All pre-post intervention studies showed improvement in parent behaviours after the training. Two studies reported significant improvement in parental behaviour, such as child rearing techniques, knowledge towards ADHD, attitude towards management of ADHD [89, 90]. Other studies reported caregivers were more aware about the symptoms, causes, consequences and course of ADHD, had reduced guilt associated with causation of ADHD, were less likely to blame the child and showed improved parent-child relationships [16, 90] (Table 3). Out of four studies on ADHD no studies assessed parental knowledge.

Child and adolescent outcome: All four studies reported child outcomes. The quasi-experimental study reduced in attention, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD) symptoms [89]. Another study showed significantly reduced child ADHD-related impairment [16]. The same study and another also reported significant improvements in behavioural problems at school, learning ability, impulse control, and academic performance, as well as reduced social withdrawal [16, 89]. The final study reported reduced interpersonal problems at home, and improved communication style, self-competency and ability to convey information clearly to teachers and tutors [90] (Table 3).

(i) Study characteristics.

Four studies were conducted between 2000 and 2015 among parents of children with CP in India (n = 3) and Bangladesh (n = 1).

(ii) Tools used.

For participant inclusion, all children or adolescent were diagnosed clinically. One study utilized the WHO International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicap. The remaining three used unspecified clinical diagnostic criteria. Assessment tools utilized focused on child behaviour, maternal adaptation, parental knowledge and family support (Table 4).

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Table 4. Characteristics of the included studies for children and adolescents with Cerebral Palsy (CP).

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(iii) Methodologies.

This review included one RCT and three pre-post intervention studies. Of the pre-post studies, one was conducted in two special schools in the Bangalore city, India, and children were randomly divided into four groups, although the sample size per group was small (16 children per group) [66]. Another pre-post study was conducted in the developmental clinic with pediatrician completing detailed history and neurological examination to confirm CP. The third pre-post study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital with children recently diagnosed (≤1 month) with CP [92]. The only RCT was conducted in Bangladesh and included two arms for children living in urban areas and two arms for children in rural areas. The number of participants was small, with losses to follow up in both arms [48] (Table 4).

(iv) Quality.

The Kmet quality ratings of the CP-related studies were the lowest of the four reviewed NDDs. Only one study was of good quality, and three were reported to be of adequate quality. The RCT clearly described the process of recruiting study participants, but did not discuss participants who dropped out or declined to take part in the study. Despite small sample size, it demonstrated positive outcomes of parent-mediated interventions [48] (Table 4).

(v) Adaptation process of the intervention programmes.

None of the interventions were adapted from programmes in other countries.

(vi) Components of the interventions.

Parent components: In a randomized open-blinded study by Maiya et al. (2015), parents were taught different preventive home care measures through educational programmes [66]. Two other studies, Karande et al. (2008) and Arora et al. (2014), targeted parental knowledge about CP, its probable a etiology, and available treatment and rehabilitation options [92, 93]. McConachie, et al. (2000) provided outreach training to improve parental knowledge [48] (Table 4 and S2.4 Table in S2 Table).

Child and adolescent components: One study include educational material about oral and gingival hygiene (60). The majority of the interventions included components to improve child motor, speech-language and cognitive skills, as well as parent-child interactions (Table 4 and S2.4 Table in S2 Table).

(vii) Modality of the interventions.

Settings: Studies were conducted in hospital, school and community settings. Duration: The length of intervention varied from one day to two months. Service providers: Interventions were provided by a trainer (1), a pediatrician (1), or a therapist (1) through film, educational programmes, or mother-child groups. Ways of delivering: The interventions were provided by closed group sessions, one-to-one session and practical sessions through educational film, flash card, pictorial manuals, or health advice to the parents [48, 66]. Time to evaluation or end-line: The time from intervention to evaluation varied from one week to 12 months. Dropout rate: Half the studies stated the dropout rate, which ranged from 19% to 36% (Table 4).

(viii) Changes in outcomes.

Parent outcome: All articles reviewed reported parental outcomes. Three studies increased parent knowledge [34, 92]. One study reported improvements in knowledge regarding maintaining oral hygiene [66] (Table 4). Out of four studies on CP, three recorded parental knowledge and used locally developed questionnaires specific to the studies.

Child and adolescent outcome: One RCT showed improvement in participant oral hygiene and gingival health status, an important part of the activity of daily living [48] (Table 4).