1932

Abstract

For more than 50 years, psychologists, gerontologists, and, more recently, neuroscientists have considered the possibility of successful aging. How to define successful aging remains debated, but well-preserved age-sensitive cognitive functions, like episodic memory, is an often-suggested criterion. Evidence for successful memory aging comes from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies showing that some older individuals display high and stable levels of performance. Successful memory aging may be accomplished via multiple paths. One path is through brain maintenance, or relative lack of age-related brain pathology. Through another path, successful memory aging can be accomplished despite brain pathology by means of efficient compensatory and strategic processes. Genetic, epigenetic, and lifestyle factors influence memory aging via both paths. Some of these factors can be promoted throughout the life course, which, at the individual as well as the societal level, can positively impact successful memory aging.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103052
2019-01-04
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/70/1/annurev-psych-010418-103052.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103052&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adams VJ, Watson P, Carmichael S, Gerry S, Penell J, Morgan DM 2016. Exceptional longevity and potential determinants of successful ageing in a cohort of 39 Labrador retrievers: results of a prospective longitudinal study. Acta Vet. Scand. 58:129–43
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Albert MS, Jones K, Savage CR, Berkman L, Seeman T et al. 1995. Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Psychol. Aging 10:4578–89
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Almeida OP, Schwab SG, Lautenschlager NT, Morar B, Greenop KR et al. 2008. KIBRA genetic polymorphism influences episodic memory in later life, but does not increase the risk of mild cognitive impairment. J. Cell Mol. Med. 12:5A1672–76
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Andel R, Finkel D, Pedersen NL 2016. Effects of preretirement work complexity and postretirement leisure activity on cognitive aging. J. Gerontol. B 71:5849–56
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Andrews G, Clark M, Luszcz M 2002. Successful aging in the Australian longitudinal study of aging: applying the MacArthur model cross-nationally. J. Soc. Issues 58:4749–65
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Arbuckle TY, Maag U, Pushkar D, Chaikelson JS 1998. Individual differences in trajectory of intellectual development over 45 years of adulthood. Psychol. Aging 13:4663–75
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Bäckman L, Dixon RA 1992. Psychological compensation: a theoretical framework. Psychol. Bull. 112:2259–83
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Baltes MM, Carstensen LL 1996. The processes of successful ageing. Ageing Soc 16:397–422
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Baltes PB, Baltes MM 1990. Successful Aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  10. Baltes PB, Smith J 2003. New frontiers in the future of aging: from successful aging of the young old to the dilemmas of the fourth age. Gerontology 49:2123–35
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Berkman LF, Seeman TE, Albert M, Blazer D, Kahn R et al. 1993. High, usual and impaired functioning in community-dwelling older men and women: findings from the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on successful aging. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 46:101129–40
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bialystok E, Craik FIM, Luk G 2012. Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain. Trends Cogn. Sci. 16:4240–50
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Boraxbekk CJ, Ames D, Kochan NA, Lee T, Thalamuthu A et al. 2015. Investigating the influence of KIBRA and CLSTN2 genetic polymorphisms on cross-sectional and longitudinal measures of memory performance and hippocampal volume in older individuals. Neuropsychologia 78:10–17
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Bosnes I, Almkvist O, Bosnes O, Stordal E, Romild U, Nordahl HM 2017. Prevalence and correlates of successful aging in a population-based sample of older adults: the HUNT study. Int. Psychogeriatr. 29:3431–40
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Branigan AR, McCallum KJ, Freese J 2013. Variation in the heritability of educational attainment: an international meta-analysis. Soc. Forces 92:1109–40
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Brickman AM, Stern Y 2009. Aging and memory in humans. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience LR Squire 175–80 Amsterdam: Elsevier
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Britton A, Shipley M, Singh-Manoux A, Marmot MG 2008. Successful aging: the contribution of early-life and midlife risk factors. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 56:61098–105
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Buitenweg JIV, Murre JMJ, Ridderinkhof KR 2012. Brain training in progress: a review of trainability in healthy seniors. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6:183
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Cabeza R 2002. Hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults: the HAROLD model. Psychol. Aging 17:85–100
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Carr K, Weir PL 2017. A qualitative description of successful aging through different decades of older adulthood. Aging Ment. Health 21:121317–25
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Chan D, Shafto M, Kievit R, Matthews F, Spink M et al. 2018. Lifestyle activities in mid-life contribute to cognitive reserve in late-life, independent of education, occupation and late-life activities. bioRxiv 267831. https://doi.org/10.1101.267831
    [Crossref]
  22. Chodosh J, Kado DM, Seeman TE, Karlamangla AS 2007. Depressive symptoms as a predictor of cognitive decline: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 15:5406–15
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Colcombe SJ, Kramer AF 2003. Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol. Sci. 14:2125–30
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Corder EH, Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, Schmechel DE, Gaskell PC et al. 1993. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families. Science 261:5123921–23
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Craik FIM 1983. On the transfer of information from temporary to permanent memory. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 302:341–59
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Daffner KR 2010. Promoting successful cognitive aging: a comprehensive review. J. Alzheimer Dis. 19:41101–22
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Davies G, Harris SE, Reynolds CA, Payton A, Knight HM et al. 2014. A genome-wide association study implicates the APOE locus in nonpathological cognitive ageing. Mol. Psychiatry 19:176–87
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Davies G, Tenesa A, Payton A, Yang J, Harris SE et al. 2011. Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. Mol. Psychiatry 16:10996–1005
    [Google Scholar]
  29. de Frias CM, Schaie KW, Willis SL 2014. Hypertension moderates the effect of APOE on 21-year cognitive trajectories. Psychol. Aging 29:2431–39
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Deary IJ 2012. Intelligence. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 63:453–82
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Deary IJ, Yang J, Davies G, Harris SE, Tenesa A et al. 2012. Genetic contributions to stability and change in intelligence from childhood to old age. Nature 482:7384212–15
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Degerman S, Josefsson M, Nordin Adolfsson A, Wennstedt S, Landfors M et al. 2017. Maintained memory in aging is associated with young epigenetic age. Neurobiol. Aging 55:167–71
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Dekhtyar M, Papp KV, Buckley R, Jacobs HIL, Schultz AP et al. 2017. Neuroimaging markers associated with maintenance of optimal memory performance in late-life. Neuropsychologia 100:164–70
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Depp CA, Harmell A, Vahia IV 2012. Successful cognitive aging. Behavioral Neurobiology of Aging M Pardon, M Bondi 35–50 Berlin: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Depp CA, Jeste DV 2006. Definitions and predictors of successful aging: a comprehensive review of larger quantitative studies. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 14:16–20
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Düzel E, Schütze H, Yonelinas AP, Heinze HJ 2011. Functional phenotyping of successful aging in long-term memory: Preserved performance in the absence of neural compensation. Hippocampus 21:8803–14
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Düzel E, Van Praag H, Sendtner M 2016. Can physical exercise in old age improve memory and hippocampal function. Brain 139:3662–73
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Eichenbaum H 2017. Prefrontal-hippocampal interactions in episodic memory. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 18:9547–58
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, Basak C, Szabo A et al. 2011. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. PNAS 108:73017–22
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Farrell ME, Kennedy KM, Rodrigue KM, Wig G, Bischof GN et al. 2017. Association of longitudinal cognitive decline with amyloid burden in middle-aged and older adults: evidence for a dose-response relationship. JAMA Neurol 74:7830–38
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Ferencz B, Laukka EJ, Welmer AK, Kalpouzos G, Angleman S et al. 2014. The benefits of staying active in old age: physical activity counteracts the negative influence of PICALM, BIN1, and CLU risk alleles on episodic memory functioning. Psychol. Aging 29:2440–49
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Finkel D, Andel R, Gatz M, Pedersen NL 2009. The role of occupational complexity in trajectories of cognitive aging before and after retirement. Psychol. Aging 24:3563–73
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Fjell AM, McEvoy L, Holland D, Dale AM, Walhovd KB 2013. Brain changes in older adults at very low risk for Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurosci. 33:198237–42
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Fjell AM, Walhovd KB, Fennema-Notestine C, McEvoy LK, Hagler DJ et al. 2009. One-year brain atrophy evident in healthy aging. J. Neurosci. 29:4815223–31
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Flynn JR 1984. The mean IQ of Americans: massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychol. Bull. 95:129–51
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Flynn JR 2012. Are We Getting Smarter: Rising IQ in the Twenty-First Century Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  47. Flynn JR, Shayer M 2018. IQ decline and Piaget: Does the rot start at the top. Intelligence 66:112–21
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Ganguli M 2017. The times they are a-changin’: cohort effects in aging, cognition, and dementia. Int. Psychogeriatr. 29:3353–55
    [Google Scholar]
  49. García-Lara JM, Navarrete-Reyes AP, Medina-Méndez R, Aguilar-Navarro SG, Avila-Funes JA 2017. Successful aging, a new challenge for developing countries: the Coyoacán cohort. J. Nutr. Health Aging 21:2215–19
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Gefen T, Peterson M, Papastefan ST, Martersteck A, Whitney K et al. 2015. Morphometric and histologic substrates of cingulate integrity in elders with exceptional memory capacity. J. Neurosci. 35:41781–91
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Gefen T, Shaw E, Whitney K, Martersteck A, Stratton J et al. 2014. Longitudinal neuropsychological performance of cognitive SuperAgers. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 62:81598–600
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Ghisletta P, Rabbitt P, Lunn M, Lindenberger U 2012. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40:3260–68
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Gorbach T, Pudas S, Lundquist A, Orädd G, Josefsson M et al. 2016. Longitudinal association between hippocampus atrophy and episodic-memory decline. Neurobiol. Aging 51:167–76
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Gow A, Johnson W, Pattie A, Brett CE, Roberts B et al. 2011. Stability and change in intelligence from age 11 to ages 70, 79, and 87: the Lothian Birth Cohorts of 1921 and 1936. Psychol. Aging 26:1232–40
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Grady CL 2012. The cognitive neuroscience of ageing. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 13:7491–505
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Griffith DM, Cornish EK, Bergner EM, Bruce MA, Beech BM 2018. “Health is the ability to manage yourself without help”: how older African American men define health and successful aging. J. Gerontol. B 73:2240–47
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Habib R, Nyberg L, Nilsson L-G 2007. Cognitive and non-cognitive factors contributing to the longitudinal identification of successful older adults in the Betula study. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 14:3257–73
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Hannum G, Guinney J, Zhao L, Zhang L, Hughes G et al. 2013. Genome-wide methylation profiles reveal quantitative views of human aging rates. Mol. Cell 49:2359–67
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Harrison TM, Weintraub S, Mesulam MM, Rogalski E 2012. Superior memory and higher cortical volumes in unusually successful cognitive aging. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 18:61081–85
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Havighurst RJ 1961. Successful aging. Gerontologist 1:18–13
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Havighurst RJ, Albrecht R 1953. Older People New York: Longmans Green Co.
  62. Hessel P, Kinge JM, Skirbekk V, Staudinger UM 2018. Trends and determinants of the Flynn effect in cognitive functioning among older individuals in 10 European countries. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health. In press
  63. Hillgaard Bülow M, Söderqvist T 2014. Successful ageing: a historical overview and critical analysis of a successful concept. J. Aging Stud. 31:139–49
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Horvath S 2013. DNA methylation age of human tissues and cell types. Genome Biol 14:10R115
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Hultsch DF, Hertzog C, Small BJ, Dixon RA 1999. Use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging. Psychol. Aging 14:2245–63
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Jack CR Jr., Petersen RC, Xu Y, O'Brien PC, Smith GE et al. 1998. Rate of medial temporal lobe atrophy in typical aging and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 51:4993–99
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Jonasson LS, Nyberg L, Kramer AF, Lundquist A, Riklund K, Boraxbekk C-J 2017. Aerobic exercise intervention, cognitive performance, and brain structure: results from the Physical Influences on Brain in Aging (PHIBRA) Study. Front. Aging Neurosci. 8:336
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Jones MJ, Moore SR, Kobor MS 2018. Principles and challenges of applying epigenetic epidemiology to psychology. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 69:459–85
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Josefsson M, de Luna X, Pudas S, Nilsson LG, Nyberg L 2012. Genetic and lifestyle predictors of 15-year longitudinal change in episodic memory. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 60:122308–12
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Katz S, Ford AB, Moskowitz RW, Jackson BA, Jaffe MW 1963. Studies of illness in the aged: the index of ADL—a standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function. JAMA 185:12914–19
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Kelly ME, Loughrey D, Lawlor BA, Robertson IH, Walsh C, Brennan S 2014. The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res. Rev. 16:112–31
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Kennedy KM, Reese ED, Horn MM, Sizemore AN, Unni AK et al. 2015. BDNF val66met polymorphism affects aging of multiple types of memory. Brain Res 1612:104–17
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Kusumastuti S, Derks MG, Tellier S, Di Nucci E, Lund R et al. 2016. Successful ageing: a study of the literature using citation network analysis. Maturitas 93:4–12
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Lampit A, Hallock H, Valenzuela M 2014. Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLOS Med 11:11e1001756
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lane AP, Windsor TD, Andel R, Luszcz MA 2017. Is occupational complexity associated with cognitive performance or decline? Results from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Gerontology 63:6550–59
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Lee T, Henry JD, Trollor JN, Sachdev PS 2010. Genetic influences on cognitive functions in the elderly: a selective review of twin studies. Brain Res. Rev. 64:11–13
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Liang J, Shaw BA, Krause NM, Bennett JM, Blaum C et al. 2003. Changes in functional status among older adults in Japan: successful and usual aging. Psychol. Aging 18:4684–95
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Lin FV, Ren P, Mapstone M, Meyers SP, Porsteinsson A et al. 2017.a The cingulate cortex of older adults with excellent memory capacity. Cortex 86:83–92
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Lin FV, Wang X, Wu R, Rebok GW, Chapman BPAlzheimer Dis. Neuroimaging Initiat. 2017.b Identification of successful cognitive aging in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative Study. J. Alzheimer Dis. 59:1101–11
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Lindenberger U 2014. Human cognitive aging: corriger la fortune. Science 346:6209572–78
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Livingston G, Sommerlad A, Orgeta V, Costafreda SG, Huntley J et al. 2017. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. Lancet 390:101132673–734
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Lövdén M, Bäckman L, Lindenberger U, Schaefer S, Schmiedek F 2010. A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychol. Bull. 136:4659–76
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Lövdén M, Ghisletta P, Lindenberger U 2005. Social participation attenuates decline in perceptual speed in old and very old age. Psychol. Aging 20:3423–34
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Loy CT, Schofield PR, Turner AM, Kwok JB 2014. Genetics of dementia. Lancet 383:9919828–40
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Lupien SJ, Wan N 2004. Successful ageing: from cell to self. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 359:14491413–26
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Mariolis A, Foscolou A, Tyrovolas S, Piscopo S, Valacchi G et al. 2016. Successful aging among elders living in the Mani continental region vs. insular areas of the Mediterranean: the MEDIS Study. Aging Dis 7:3285–94
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Marioni RE, Shah S, McRae AF, Ritchie SJ, Muniz-Terrera G et al. 2015. The epigenetic clock is correlated with physical and cognitive fitness in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Int. J. Epidemiol. 44:41388–96
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Mather KA, Kwok JB, Armstrong N, Sachdev PS 2014. The role of epigenetics in cognitive ageing. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 29:111162–71
    [Google Scholar]
  89. McClearn GE 1997. Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science 276:53181560–63
    [Google Scholar]
  90. McGue M, Christensen K 2013. Growing old but not growing apart: twin similarity in the latter half of the lifespan. Behav. Genet. 43:11–12
    [Google Scholar]
  91. McLaughlin S 2010. Successful aging in the United States: prevalence estimates from a national sample of older adults. J. Gerontol. B 65:2216–26
    [Google Scholar]
  92. McLaughlin S, Jette AM, Connell CM 2012. An examination of healthy aging across a conceptual continuum: prevalence estimates, demographic patterns, and validity. J. Gerontol. A 67:7783–89
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Milte CM, McNaughton SA 2016. Dietary patterns and successful ageing: a systematic review. Eur. J. Nutr. 55:2423–50
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Mormino EC, Betensky RA, Hedden T, Schultz AP, Amariglio RE et al. 2014. Synergistic effect of β-amyloid and neurodegeneration on cognitive decline in clinically normal individuals. JAMA Neurol 71:111379–85
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Nagel IE, Preuschhof C, Li SC, Nyberg L, Bäckman L et al. 2009. Performance level modulates adult age differences in brain activation during spatial working memory. PNAS 106:5222552–57
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Ngandu T, Lehtisalo J, Solomon A, Levälahti E, Ahtiluoto S et al. 2015. A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 385:99842255–63
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Northey JM, Cherbuin N, Pumpa KL, Smee DJ, Rattray B 2018. Exercise interventions for cognitive function in adults older than 50: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 52:3154–60
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Nyberg L, Karalija N, Salami A, Andersson M, Wåhlin A et al. 2016. Dopamine D2 receptor availability is linked to hippocampal-caudate functional connectivity and episodic memory. PNAS 113:287918–23
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Nyberg L, Lövdén M, Riklund K, Lindenberger U, Bäckman L 2012. Memory, aging and brain maintenance. Trends Cogn. Sci. 16:5292–305
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Nyberg L, Maitland SB, Rönnlund M, Bäckman L, Dixon RA et al. 2003. Selective adult age differences in an age-invariant multifactor model of declarative memory. Psychol. Aging 18:1149–60
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Nyberg L, Salami A, Andersson M, Eriksson J, Kalpouzos G et al. 2010. Longitudinal evidence for diminished frontal cortex function in aging. PNAS 107:5222682–86
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Okbay A, Beauchamp JP, Fontana MA, Lee JJ, Pers TH et al. 2016. Genome-wide association study identifies 74 loci associated with educational attainment. Nature 533:7604539–42
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Park DC, Reuter-Lorenz P 2009. The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60:173–96
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Pedersen NL, Christensen K, Dahl AK, Finkel D, Franz CE et al. 2013. IGEMS: the consortium on Interplay of Genes and Environment across Multiple Studies. Twin Res. Hum. Genet. 16:1481–89
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Persson N, Lavebratt C, Sundström A, Fischer H 2016. Pulse pressure magnifies the effect of COMT Val158Met on 15 years episodic memory trajectories. Front. Aging Neurosci. 8:34
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Potter GG, Plassman BL, Helms MJ, Foster SM, Edwards NW 2006. Occupational characteristics and cognitive performance among elderly male twins. Neurology 67:1377–82
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Pruchno R, Carr D 2017. Editorial: successful aging 2.0: resilience and beyond. J. Gerontol. B 72:2201–3
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Pruchno R, Heid AR, Genderson MW 2015. Resilience and successful aging: aligning complementary constructs using a life course approach. Psychol. Inq. 26:2200–7
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Pudas S, Josefsson M, Rieckmann A, Nyberg L 2018. Longitudinal evidence for increased functional response in frontal cortex for older adults with hippocampal atrophy and memory decline. Cereb. Cortex 28:3936–48
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Pudas S, Persson J, Josefsson M, de Luna X, Nilsson LG, Nyberg L 2013. Brain characteristics of individuals resisting age-related cognitive decline over two decades. J. Neurosci. 33:208668–77
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Raz N, Lindenberger U, Rodrigue KM, Kennedy KM, Head D et al. 2005. Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cereb. Cortex 15:111676–89
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Reynolds CA, Finkel D 2015. A meta-analysis of heritability of cognitive aging: minding the “missing heritability” gap. Neuropsychol. Rev. 25:197–112
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Rönnlund M, Nilsson L-G 2008. The magnitude, generality, and determinants of Flynn effects on forms of declarative memory and visuospatial ability: time-sequential analyses of data from a Swedish cohort study. Intelligence 36:3192–209
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Rönnlund M, Nyberg L, Bäckman L, Nilsson LG 2005. Stability, growth, and decline in adult life span development of declarative memory: cross-sectional and longitudinal data from a population-based study. Psychol. Aging 20:13–18
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Rönnlund M, Sundström A, Nilsson LG 2015. Interindividual differences in general cognitive ability from age 18 to age 65 years are extremely stable and strongly associated with working memory capacity. Intelligence 53:59–64
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Roos NP, Havens B 1991. Predictors of successful aging: a twelve-year study of Manitoba elderly. Am. J. Public Health 81:163–68
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Rowe JW, Kahn RL 1987. Human aging: usual and successful. Science 237:4811143–49
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Rowe JW, Kahn RL 2015. Successful aging 2.0: conceptual expansions for the 21st century. J. Gerontol. Ser. B 70:4593–96
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Salami A, Pudas S, Nyberg L 2014. Elevated hippocampal resting-state connectivity underlies deficient neurocognitive function in aging. PNAS 111:4917654–59
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Satizabal CL, Beiser AS, Chouraki V, Chêne G, Dufouil C, Seshadri S 2016. Incidence of dementia over three decades in the Framingham Heart Study. New Engl. J. Med. 374:6523–32
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Schaie KW 1994. The course of adult intellectual development. Am. Psychol. 49:4304–13
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Schöll M, Lockhart SN, Schonhaut DR, O'Neil JP, Janabi M et al. 2016. PET imaging of tau deposition in the aging human brain. Neuron 89:5971–82
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Schulz R, Heckhausen J 1996. A life span model of successful aging. Am. Psychol. 51:7702–14
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Seeman TE, McEwen BS, Singer BH, Albert MS, Rowe JW 1997. Increase in urinary cortisol excretion and memory declines: MacArthur studies of successful aging. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82:82458–65
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Singh-Manoux A, Kivimaki M, Glymour MM, Elbaz A, Ebmeier KP et al. 2012. Timing of onset of cognitive decline: results from Whitehall II prospective cohort study. Br. Med. J. 344:d7622
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Skirbekk V, Stonawski M, Bonsang E, Staudinger UM 2013. The Flynn effect and population aging. Intelligence 41:3169–77
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Skoog I, Börjesson-Hanson A, Kern S, Johansson L, Falk H et al. 2017. Decreasing prevalence of dementia in 85-year olds examined 22 years apart: the influence of education and stroke. Sci. Rep. 7:6136
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Snigdha S, Milgram NW, Willis SL, Albert M, Weintraub S et al. 2013. A preclinical cognitive test battery to parallel the National Institute of Health Toolbox in humans: bridging the translational gap. Neurobiol. Aging 34:71891–901
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Sofi F, Valecchi D, Bacci D, Abbate R, Gensini GF et al. 2011. Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. J. Intern. Med. 269:1107–17
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Stern Y 2009. Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia 47:102015–28
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Sun FW, Stepanovic MR, Andreano J, Barrett LF, Touroutoglou A, Dickerson BC 2016. Youthful brains in older adults: preserved neuroanatomy in the default mode and salience networks contributes to youthful memory in superaging. J. Neurosci. 36:379659–68
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Sundet JM, Barlaug DG, Torjussen TM 2004. The end of the Flynn effect? A study of secular trends in mean intelligence test scores of Norwegian conscripts during half a century. Intelligence 32:4349–62
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Thow ME, Summers MJ, Saunders NL, Summers JJ, Ritchie K, Vickers JC 2018. Further education improves cognitive reserve and triggers improvement in selective cognitive functions in older adults: the Tasmanian Healthy Brain Project. Alzheimers Dementia 10:22–30
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Trahan LH, Stuebing KK, Fletcher JM, Hiscock M 2014. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 140:51332–60
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Trampush JW, Zang MLZ, Yu J, Knowles E, Davies G et al. 2017. GWAS meta-analysis reveals novel loci and genetic correlates for general cognitive function: a report from the COGENT consortium. Mol. Psychiatry 22:3336–45
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Tucker-Drob EM, Reynolds CA, Finkel D, Pedersen NL 2014. Shared and unique genetic and environmental influences on aging-related changes in multiple cognitive abilities. Dev. Psychol. 50:1152–66
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Tulving E 2002. Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53:1–25
    [Google Scholar]
  138. van Praag H 2009. Exercise and the brain: something to chew on. Trends Neurosci 32:5283–90
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Vemuri P, Lesnick TG, Przybelski SA, Machulda M, Knopman DS et al. 2014. Association of lifetime intellectual enrichment with cognitive decline in the older population. JAMA Neurol 71:81017–24
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Voelcker-Rehage C, Jeltsch A, Godde B, Becker S, Staudinger UM 2015. COMT gene polymorphisms, cognitive performance, and physical fitness in older adults. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 20:20–28
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Waiter GD, Fox HC, Murray AD, Starr JM, Staff RT et al. 2008. Is retaining the youthful functional anatomy underlying speed of information processing a signature of successful cognitive ageing? An event-related fMRI study of inspection time performance. NeuroImage 41:2581–95
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Walhovd KB, Fjell AM, Westerhausen R, Nyberg L, Ebneier KP et al. 2018. Healthy minds 0–100 years: optimising the use of European brain imaging cohorts (“Lifebrain”). Eur. Psychiatry 47:76–87
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Walhovd KB, Westlye LT, Amlien I, Espeseth T, Reinvang I et al. 2011. Consistent neuroanatomical age-related volume differences across multiple samples. Neurobiol. Aging 32:5916–32
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Williams RH, Wirths CG 1965. Lives Through the Years: Styles of Life and Successful Aging New York: Atherton Press
  145. Wilson RS, Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF, Evans DA 2009. Educational attainment and cognitive decline in old age. Neurology 72:5460–65
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Yaffe K 2013. Chronic Medical Disease and Cognitive Aging: Towards a Healthy Body and Brain Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  147. Yaffe K, Fiocco AJ, Lindquist K, Vittinghoff E, Simonsick EM et al. 2009. Predictors of maintaining cognitive function in older adults: the Health ABC study. Neurology 72:232029–35
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Young J, Angevaren M, Rusted J, Tabet N 2015. Aerobic exercise to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 4:CD005381
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Zahodne LB, Glymour MM, Sparks C, Bontempo D, Dixon RA et al. 2011. Education does not slow cognitive decline with aging: 12-year evidence from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17:61039–46
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Zahodne LB, Stern Y, Manly JJ 2015. Differing effects of education on cognitive decline in diverse elders with low versus high educational attainment. Neuropsychology 29:4649–57
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Zhang C, Pierce BL 2014. Genetic susceptibility to accelerated cognitive decline in the US Health and Retirement Study. Neurobiol. Aging 35:61512.e11–18
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103052
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103052
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error