Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Stability and Change in Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

doi:10.1097/00004583-200310000-00012

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry

Volume 42, Issue 10, October 2003, Pages 1212-1220

https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200310000-00012 Get rights and content

Objective

To estimate genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environmental contributions to stability and change in internalizing and externalizing problems.

Method

Maternal Child Behavior Checklist ratings were obtained for 3,873 twin pairs at age 3 and 1,924 twin pairs at age 7. For 1,575 twin pairs, ratings were available at both ages.

Results

For Internalizing/Externalizing ratings, genetic, shared, and nonshared environmental factors explained about 59/51%, 10/30%, and 31/19% of the variance at age 3, and 40/52%, 31/32%, and 29/16% of the variance at age 7. The phenotypic correlation of r = 0.38/0.54 between problems assessed at 3 and 7 years of age was explained for 66/55% by genetic factors, for 23/37% by shared environmental factors, and for 11/8% by nonshared environmental factors. The genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environmental correlations between ages 3 and 7 were 0.51/0.57, 0.47/0.66, and 0.13/0.24, respectively.

Conclusions

Genetic and shared environmental factors were most important for the stability of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems between ages 3 and 7. Nonshared environmental factors were mainly age-specific. For Internalizing Problems, shared environment may become more important from early to middle childhood.

Section snippets

Sample

All participants were members of the Netherlands Twin Registry (Boomsma et al., 1992). The accuracy of zygosity determination by questionnaire items is described by Rietveld et al. (2000). A detailed description of sample collection, zygosity determination, means, and standard deviations of CBCL scales for age 3 can be found in Van der Valk et al., 1998b, Van der Valk et al., 2001, and for age 7 in van der Valk et al. (2003). The total sample consisted of 3,873 twin pairs at age 3 and 1,924

RESULTS

Table 1 shows the within-person correlations, the twin correlations, and the twin cross-correlations between ages 3 and 7 for boys and girls. We will first discuss the results that apply to the persistency of problem behaviors over time. The within-person correlations between ages 3 and 7 (stability coefficients) were on average lower for Internalizing Problems (boys, r = 0.35; girls, r = 0.41) than for Externalizing Problems (boys, r = 0.55; girls, r = 0.53). The twin cross-correlation between

DISCUSSION

Maternal ratings of behavior problems in a large sample of 3- and 7-year old twins were used to estimate genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change. Genetic factors accounted for 66% of the phenotypic stability (r = 0.38) of Internalizing Problems and for 55% of the phenotypic stability (r = 0.54) of Externalizing Problems. Thus genes were most important for continuity in problem behaviors. Shared environmental influences accounted for 23% and 37% of the phenotypic

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Recent advances in genome-wide association studies have enabled the estimation of genetic risk of complex traits, including neuroticism, with polygenic risk scores (PRS). Neuroticism PRS has been associated with psychiatric disorders and symptoms in adults, but studies in children are scarce. We studied whether neuroticism PRS, and its subscales, worry PRS and depressive affect PRS, were associated with externalizing and internalizing symptoms in 2-year-olds. We also examined parental neuroticism PRSs' association with children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms and whether parental depressive symptoms mediated the effect. Participants from two Finnish birth cohorts, CHILD-SLEEP and FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, who had DNA and data on Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) available were included in the study (N = 806 and N = 987, respectively). PRSs were calculated based on GWAS data from UK Biobank. Child's neuroticism PRS, and its subscale worry PRS, were positively associated with externalizing symptoms in 2-year-old boys, but not in girls. Mother's depressive symptoms mediated the association between maternal neuroticism PRS and externalizing and internalizing symptoms in boys, but not in girls. Our results suggest that neuroticism PRS, and its subscale worry PRS, are associated with externalizing symptoms in already as young as 2-year-old boys, and, that subclinical symptoms of maternal depression that are based on genetic disposition, have an effect on boy's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. As we did not find any associations in girls, our study supports the suggestion that girls and boys may differ in how genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development.
An overview of developmental behavioral genetics
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In this chapter, we present an overview of the field of developmental behavioral genetics, which serves as important context for understanding the field of behavioral epigenetics. We outline the key methodologies used in behavioral genetics, including twin, adoption and genetic association studies and highlight their main strengths and limitations. We then review some of the important and reliable findings from the field, emphasizing the following key points: most developmentally interesting traits show substantial genetic influence, that environments are also important determinants of development and that the majority of causal action is likely to be found in the interplay between genes and environment, including processes of gene-environment correlation and interaction. A crucial contribution of epigenetics in the future is likely to be in elucidating some of the biological processes involved in environmental effects and in gene-environment interplay, and realizing this will require a deep integration of genetics, epigenetics, developmental psychology and epidemiology.
Postnatal depressive symptoms and child psychological development at 10 years: A prospective study of longitudinal data from the South African Birth to Twenty cohort
2014, The Lancet Psychiatry
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Second, shared genetic factors possibly underlie both maternal depression and the behavioural and emotional difficulties we noted in children. However, although the existence of genetic components contributing to these outcomes is not in doubt, study findings indicate that environmental effects are more important at this point in the life course.28 Third, both maternal depression and adverse child outcome are much more typical in situations of adversity.
In high-income countries, maternal postnatal depression is associated with adverse outcomes in the child. However, few studies have investigated this relation in countries of low and middle income. Furthermore, to our knowledge, no studies have followed up cohorts into later childhood. We aimed to investigate whether maternal depression 6 months after birth is associated with psychological difficulties in a socioeconomically disadvantaged South African cohort of children at age 10 years.
Birth to Twenty is a prospective, longitudinal, birth-cohort study based in the Soweto area of Johannesburg, South Africa. Mothers and children in this cohort have been followed up at timepoints ranging from before birth to age 10 years. Maternal mood was measured at 6 months with the Pitt depression inventory and at 10 years with the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies depression scale (CES-D). Child psychological functioning was assessed at 10 years with the South African child assessment schedule (SACAS). Our primary outcome was psychological development of children at age 10 years, measured by total score on the SACAS. Secondary outcomes were scores on externalising and internalising subscales of the SACAS. We used t tests to compare psychological outcomes between children whose mother had postnatal depression at 6 months and those whose mother did not have postnatal depression. We examined associations between maternal postnatal depression and child psychological outcomes by multivariate linear-regression analysis, adjusting for socioeconomic status and maternal depression at 10 years, and we used logistic regression to provide odds ratios for associations identified by linear regression.
1866 mothers completed the Pitt depression inventory 6 months after the birth of their child; of these, 453 (24%) had symptoms of postnatal depression. At the 10-year assessment, 1012 mothers completed the CES-D questionnaire, of whom 747 (74%) were judged to have depression. Sociodemographic characteristics did not differ between mothers with and without depression at both 6 months and 10 years. After adjusting for socioeconomic status and maternal depression at 10 years, children whose mothers had postnatal depression at 6 months were more than twice as likely to have significant psychological difficulties 10 years later compared with children whose mothers did not have postnatal depression at 6 months (adjusted odds ratio 2·26, 95% CI 1·23–4·16).
Maternal postnatal depression is associated with adverse psychological outcomes in children up to 10 years later in countries of low and middle income. In view of the increased prevalence of postnatal depression in these settings, this finding has important implications for policy and interventions for children and their mothers.
Wellcome Trust (UK), Medical Research Council of South Africa, Human Science Research Council (South Africa), University of the Witwatersrand.
Co-occurrence of antisocial behavior and substance use: Testing for sex differences in the impact of older male friends, low parental knowledge and friends' delinquency
2014, Journal of Adolescence
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Likewise, Vollebergh et al. (2001) reported substantial 1-year stability (i.e., a coefficient of .96) for an externalizing factor consisting of alcohol and drug dependence, in men and women between the ages of 18 and 24. Developmental studies, in addition to examining the temporal stability of an externalizing factor (e.g. Haberstick, Schmitz, Young, & Hewitt, 2005; van der Valk, van den Oord, Verhulst, & Boomsma, 2003), have assessed reciprocal influences between ASB and SU. Evidence suggests that early initiation of alcohol and/or drug use is predictive not only of further SU in adulthood (Odgers et al., 2008), but also ASB (Huizinga, Loeber, & Thornberry, 1995).
Delinquency and substance use (SU) are commonly comorbid during adolescence. In the present study we investigate this co-morbidity with 3 main objectives: 1. Evaluate reciprocal relationships between delinquency/SU across early adolescence. 2. Assess the impact of older male friends, low parental knowledge and friends' delinquency on subsequent development and inter-relationships of delinquency and SU. 3. Evaluate sex differences in these relationships.
We applied cross-lagged structural equation models to the analysis of a longitudinal sample (n = 3699). Findings demonstrated: (1) At ages 13–14 delinquency predicted SU more so than vice versa but effects became equal between ages 14 and 15. (2) Low parental knowledge and friends' delinquency predicted delinquency and SU. Older male friends predicted ASB. (3) Sex differences were present. For example, in the absence of antisocial friends low parent knowledge at age 12 indirectly predicted increased age 15 SU for girls more than boys.
Genetic and environmental influences on the co-occurrence of early academic achievement and externalizing behavior
2014, Journal of Criminal Justice
Citation Excerpt :
Other studies have, however, examined externalizing behaviors over time, demonstrating that the stability in externalizing behaviors can also be partially explained by genetics factors. For instance, a study by van der Valk, van den Oord, Verhulst & Boomsma (2003b) revealed that the stability in externalizing behaviors in a sample of youth from the ages of 3 to 7 was primarily due to genetic factors (55%). This finding has been replicated using samples of twins from ages 3 to 12 (Bartels et al., 2004), from ages 7 to 12 (Haberstick, Schmitz, Young, & Hewitt, 2005), and from ages 10-15 to 13-18 (van der Valk, Verhulst, Neale, & Boomsma, 1998).
Several studies have observed a relationship between academic achievement and externalizing behaviors, both of which are predictors of delinquency and criminal behavior in adulthood. There is, however, no consensus on an explanation for their co-occurrence. One perspective is that both emerge as a result of a common underlying factor. This study investigates the degree to which the same genetic and environmental factors account for the co-occurrence of these two outcomes.
The sample consists of twins (N = 360) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey-Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999. Bivariate genetic analyses were conducted to assess the genetic and environmental influence on the relationship between academic achievement and externalizing behaviors during kindergarten.
The covariation was due primarily to common shared environmental factors (55-87%), followed by common genetic (8-44%) and nonshared environmental factors (1-13%).
Both early academic achievement and externalizing behaviors are partially influenced by the same genetic and environmental factors. The large proportion of covariance attributed to shared environmental influences suggests that identifying and targeting shared environmental factors in prevention and intervention strategies may improve both behavior and academic achievement.
Aggression and rule-breaking: Heritability and stability of antisocial behavior problems in childhood and adolescence
2013, Journal of Criminal Justice
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In general, there have been more longitudinal examinations of aggression or widely-defined antisocial behavior than of rule-breaking on its own. In young childhood, over the ages of 3–7 years, genetics and shared home environment were found to contribute to stability in overall antisocial behavior (Van der Valk, et al. 2003). Stability in maternal ratings of aggression across the age span of 3–12 years was 65% accounted for by genetic factors and 25% by shared environmental factors.
This twin study examined the structure of genetic and environmental influences on aggression and rule-breaking in order to examine change and stability across the span of childhood to mid-adolescence.
Behavioral assessments were conducted at two time points: age 9–10 years and 14–15 years. Using behavioral genetics biometric modeling, the longitudinal structure of influences was investigated.
Aggression and rule-breaking were found to be influenced by a latent common factor of antisocial behavior (ASB) within each wave of data collection. The variance in the childhood-age common factor of ASB was influenced by 41% genetics, 40% shared environment and 19% nonshared environment. In adolescence, 41% of variance in the common factor were novel and entirely genetic, while the remainder of variance was stable across time. Additionally, both aggression and rule-breaking within each wave were found to have unique influences not common across subscales or across waves, highlighting specificity of genetic and environmental effects on different problem behaviors at both ages.
This research sheds light on the commonality of influences on different forms of antisocial behavior. Future research into interventions for antisocial behavior problems in youth could focus on adolescence-specific environmental influences.

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: This work was supported by a grant from the Sophia Foundation for Medical Research.

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ARTICLESGenetic and Environmental Contributions to Stability and Change in Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

Objective

Method

Results

Conclusions

Section snippets

Sample

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

J Adolesc

J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry

J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry

J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry

Am J Hum Genet

Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile

Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/2–3 and 1992 Profile

Parent and child reports of depressive symptoms in children at low and high risk of depression

J Child Psychol Psychiatry

Parent-child relationship influences on children's transition to school

Merrill-Palmer Q

The Dutch twin register: growth data on weight and height

Behav Genet

Behavior problems in preschool children: a review of recent research

J Child Psychol Psychiatry

Behavioral observations at age 3 years predict adult psychiatric disorders: longitudinal evidence form a birth cohort

Arch Gen Psychiatry

Cross-cultural generalizability of the Child Behavior Checklist cross-informant syndromes

Psychol Assess

Analyzing twin resemblance in multisymptom data: genetic application of a latent class model for symptoms of conduct disorder in juvenile boys

Behav Genet

Convergence between statistically derived behavior problem syndromes and child psychiatric diagnoses

J Abnorm Child Psychol

Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development

Psychol Rev

Syndrome dimensions of the Child Behavior Checklist: a critical empirical evaluation

J Child Psychol Psychiatry

Associations between different diagnostic approaches for child and adolescent psychopathology

J Child Psychol Psychiatry

Longitudinal studies of general population and community samples

Behavioural and emotional problems in young pre-schoolers: cross-cultural testing of the validity of the Child Behavior Checklist 2/3

J Abnorm Child Psychol

ARTICLES
Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Stability and Change in Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Problems