Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Risk and Protective Profiles Among Never Exposed, Single Form, and Multiple Form Violence Exposed Youth

  • Research on Exposure to Violence
  • Published:
Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This investigation integrated violence exposure with critical risk and protective factors linked to healthy adolescent adaptation and transition into early adulthood. A racially diverse sample of 848 adolescents identified as at-risk for school drop-out were assessed for no, single, or multiple forms of violence exposure. MANOVA tests revealed that youth with single form victimization fared more poorly than neverexposed youth, and that multiple-form victimization held the greatest jeopardy to development. Youth with multiple-form victimization reported significantly elevated risk factors (emotional distress, life stress, suicide risk, risky behaviors) and lower protective factors (social support, school engagement, family structure) than both single-form and never-exposed youth. Implications are discussed for preventive and early intervention programming and for examining the transition of at-risk youth into young adulthood.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albus, K. E., Weist, M. D., & Perez-Smith, A. M. (2004). Associations between youth risk behavior and exposure to violence: Implications for the provision of mental health services in urban schools. Behavior Modification, 28, 548–564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alves-Martins, M., Peixoto, F., Gouveia-Pereira, M., Amaral, V., & Pedro, I. (2002). Self-esteem and academic achievement among adolescents. Educational Psychology, 22(1), 51–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arata, C. M. (2000). From child victim to adult victim: A model for predicting sexual revictimization. Child Maltreatment, 5(1), 23–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arias, I. (2004). The legacy of child maltreatment: Long-term health consequences for women. Journal of Women’s Health, 15(5), 468–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Weissman, A., Lester, D., & Texler, L. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The Hopelessness Scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(6), 861–865.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, D. P., Stein, J. A., Newcomb, M, D., Walker, E., Pogge, D., Ahluvalia, T., et al. (2003). Development and validation of a brief screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, 169–190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boney-McCoy, S., & Finkelhor, D. (1996). Is youth victimization related to trauma symptoms and depression after controlling for prior symptoms and family relationships? A longitudinal, prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(4), 1406–1416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brener, N. D., & Collins, J. L. (1998). Co-occurrence of health risk behaviours among adolescents in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 22, 209–213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (2002). Treating adult survivors of severe childhood abuse and neglect: Further development of an integrative model. In J. E. B. Myers, L. Berliner, J. Briere, C. T. Hendrix, T. Reid, & C. Jenny (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed., pp. 175–202). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2006). Criminal victimization in the United States, 2005. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., Oesterle, S., Fleming, C. B., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). The importance of bonding to school for healthy development: Findings from the Social Development Research Group. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 252–261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. B., De Bellis, M. D., Lynch, K. G., Cornelius, J. R., & Martin, C. S. (2003). Physical and sexual abuse, depression and alcohol use disorders in adolescents: Onsets and outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 69, 51–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, L. M., Murphy, S. A., & Bierman, K. L. (2004). A conceptual framework for adaptive preventive interventions. Prevention Science, 5(3), 185–196.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coppel, D. B. (1981). The relationship of perceived social support and self-efficacy to major and minor stresses. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41(7-B), 2751–B.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dong, M., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Dube, S. R., Williamson, D. F., Thompson, T. J., et al. (2004). The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 771–784.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, V. Holden, G. W., Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: Results from the adverse childhood experiences study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(8), 1453–1460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eggert, L. L., Herting, J. R., & Thompson, E. A. (1996). Drug Involvement Scale for Adolescents (DISA). Journal of Drug Education, 26(2), 101–130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eggert, L. L., Thompson, E. A., & Herting, J. R. (1994). A measure of adolescent potential for suicide (MAPS): Development and preliminary findings. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 24(4), 359–381.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eggert, L. L., Thompson, E. A., Randell, B. P., & Pike, K. C. (2002). Preliminary effects of brief school-based prevention approaches for reducing youth suicide-risk behaviors, depression, and drug involvement. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 15(2), 48–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, A. N., & Richmond, J. M. (2006, November). The relationship of poly-victimization during childhood and physical and psychological health in college-age women. Paper presented at the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Hollywood, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). Victimization of children. American Psychologist, 49, 173–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finklehor, D., Hamby, S. L., Ormrod, R., & Turner, H. (2005). The Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire: Reliability, validity, and national norms. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 383–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., & Hashima, P. Y. (2001). The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive overview. In S. O. White (Ed.), Law and social science perspectives on youth and justice (pp. 49–78). New York: Plenum Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finklehor, D., & Kendall-Tackett, K. (1997). A developmental perspective on the childhood impact of crime, abuse, and violent victimization. In D. Cicchetti, & S. S. T. Toth (Eds.), Developmental perspectives on trauma: Theory, research, and intervention (Vol. 8, pp. 1–32). Rochester, NY: Rochester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007a). Poly-victimization: A neglected component in child victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 7–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007b). Poly-victimization and trauma in a national longitudinal cohort. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 149–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R.K., Turner, H. A., & Hamby, S. L (2005). Measuring poly-victimization using the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 1297–1312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Follette, V. M., Polusny, M. A., Bechtle, A. E., & Naugle, A. E. (1996). Cumulative trauma: The impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(1), 25–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Goodman, L. A., Krupnick, J. L., Corcoran, C. B., Petty, R. M., Stockton, P., et al. (2000). Outcomes of single versus multiple trauma exposure in a screening sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(2), 271–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. F., Self-Brown, S., Fricker-Elhai, A., Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B. E., & Resnick, H. (2006). Relations among parental substance use, violence exposure, and mental health: The national survey of adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 31(11), 1988–2001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herting, J. R. (1990). Predicting at-risk youth: Evaluation of a sample selection model. Communicating Nursing Research, 23, 178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howes, P. W., Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Rogosch, F. A. (2000). Affective, organizational, and relational characteristics of maltreating families: A system’s perspective. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 95–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Irwin, H. J. (1999). Violent and nonviolent revictimization of women abused in childhood. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(10), 1095–1110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonzon, E., & Lindblad, F. (2006). Risk factors and protective factors in relation to subjective health among adult female victims of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30, 127–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, A. C., & Bennett, L. (2006). Urban adolescent mothers exposed to community, family, and partner violence: Is cumulative violence exposure a barrier to school performance and participation? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(6), 750–773.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K. J., Acierno, R., Saunders, B. E., Resnick, H. S., & Best, C. L. (2003). Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 692–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linehan, M. M., Goodstein, J. L., Nielson, S. L., & Chiles, J. A. (1983). Reasons for staying alive when you are thinking of killing yourself: The Reasons for Living Inventory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(2), 276–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCubbin, H. I., & Thompson, A. I. (1987). A-FILE Adolescent Family Inventory of life events and changes. In H. I. McCubbin & A. I. Patterson (Eds.), Family assessment inventories for research and practice (pp. 99–109). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Medrano, M. A., Hutch, J. P., Zule, W. A., & Desmond, D. P. (2002). Psychological distress in childhood trauma survivors who abuse drugs. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 28(1), 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moeller, T. P., Bachmann, G. A., & Moeller, J. R. (1993). The combined effects of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse during childhood: Long-term health consequences for women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 623–640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, G. M., Robertson, L., Laurie, B., & Kelly, J. (2002). Protective factors related to antisocial behavior trajectories. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(3), 277–329.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullen, P. E, Martin, J. L., Anderson, J. C., Romans, S. E., & Herbison, G. P. (1996). The long-term impact of the physical, emotional, and sexual abuse of children: A community study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 20, 7–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2002, July). Children exposed to violence: Current status, gaps, and research priorities. Workshop sponsored by NICHD, NIDA, NIMH, FIC, OBSSR, ASPE, CDC, SAMHSA, DHHS, NIJ, OSEP, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D., Huba, G. J., & Bentler, P. M. (1981). A multidimensional assessment of stressful life events among adolescents: Derivation and correlates. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 400–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nugent, M., Labram, A., & McLoughlin, L. (1999). The effects of child sexual abuse on school life. Educational & Child Psychology, 14(4), 68–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, J. M., & McCubbin, H. I. (1987). Adolescent coping style and behaviors: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Adolescence, 10(2), 163–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1987). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick M. D. (2000). Protective factors, resiliency, and healthy development. Adolescent Medicine, 11(1), 157–164.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M. D., Borowsky, I. W., & Ireland, M. (1999). Adolescent violence perpetration: What predicts? What protects? Adolescent Health, 24, 128–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1995). The role of child maltreatment in early deviations in cognitive and affective processing abilities and later peer relationship problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 591–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rossman, B. B. R., & Rosenberg, M. (1998). Multiple victimization of children: Conceptual, developmental, research, and treatment issues. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Runtz, M. G., & Schallow, J. R. (1997). Social support and coping strategies as mediators of adult adjustment following childhood maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(2), 211–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, B. E. (2003). Understanding children exposed to violence: Toward an integration of overlapping fields. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(4), 356–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, J. M. (1986). The Multidimensional Anger Inventory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(1), 191–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smilkstein, G. Ashworth, C., & Montano, D. (1982). Validity and reliability of the family Apgar as a test of family function. Journal of Family Practice, 15(2), 303–311.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. H., White, J. W., & Holland, L. J. (2003). A longitudinal perspective on dating violence among adolescent and college-age women. American Journal of Public Health, 93(7), 1104–1109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spertus, I. L., Yehuda, R., Wong, C. M., Halligan, S., & Seremetis, S. (2003). Childhood emotional abuse and neglect as predictors of psychological and physical symptoms in women presenting to a primary care practice. Child Abuse Neglect, 27, 1247–1258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, E. A., & Leckie, M. S. (1989). Interpretation manual for Symptoms of Stress Inventory: A self assessment. Seattle, WA: Psychosocial Nursing Department, University of Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, M. P., Arias, I., Desai, S., & Basile, K. C. (2002). The association between childhood physical and sexual victimization and health problems in adulthood in a nationally representative sample of women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17(10), 1115–1129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (1998). Prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute o Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, E. A., Eggert, L. L., Randell, B. P. & Pike, K. C. (2001). Evaluation of indicated suicide-risk prevention approaches for potential high school dropouts. American Journal of Public Health, 91(5), 742–752.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, K. A. (2002). Social and emotional outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: A review of recent research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7, 567–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). National strategy for suicide prevention: Goals and objectives for action — The Surgeon General’s report. Rockville, MD: Author, Public Health Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Justice. (2003). Youth victimization: Prevalence and implications. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vranceanu, A. M., Hobfoll, S. E., & Johnson, R. J. (2007). Child multi-type maltreatment and associated depression and PTSD symptoms: The role of social support and stress. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 71–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, E., Randell, B. P., & Eggert, L. L. (1997). The measure of adolescent potential for suicide (MAPS): A tool for assessment and crisis intervention. Reaching Today’s Youth, 2(1), 22–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weathers, F. W., & Keane, T. M (1999). Psychological assessment of traumatized adults. In P. A. Saigh & J. D. Bremner (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: A comprehensive text (pp. 219–247). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, J. W., & Smith, P. H. (2004). Sexual assault perpetration and reperpetration: From adolescence to young adulthood. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 182–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., & McGee, R. (1994). Child maltreatment and adolescent adjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 165–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., Wekerle, C., Scott, K., Straatman, A., & Grasley, C. (2004). Predicting abuse in adolescent dating relationships over 1 year: The role of child maltreatment and trauma. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(3), 406–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Work, University of Washington, 4101 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA, 98105, USA

    Paula S. Nurius, Patricia L. Russell, Jerald R. Herting, Carole Hooven & Elaine A. Thompson

Authors
  1. Paula S. Nurius
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patricia L. Russell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jerald R. Herting
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Carole Hooven
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Elaine A. Thompson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paula S. Nurius.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nurius, P.S., Russell, P.L., Herting, J.R. et al. Risk and Protective Profiles Among Never Exposed, Single Form, and Multiple Form Violence Exposed Youth. Journ Child Adol Trauma 2, 106–123 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1080/19361520902880798

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19361520902880798

Keywords

Search

Navigation