Phonotactic Therapy

 

 Buy Article Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

Words derive their structure not only from the sounds they include but also from the organization of those sounds within the word. This organization is the phonotactic level of the word: roughly, its shape including the sequence of its elements. Often, children with immature or disordered phonologies demonstrate phonotactic as well as phonetic limitations. Sometimes, the child may produce an age-appropriate variety of consonants and vowels but be unable to use them in the configurations required by the language: final consonants, clusters, multisyllabic words, and so forth. In such cases, the most appropriate therapy goals may be phonotactic, rather than phonetic, ones. Studies have shown that clinical focus on a new word or syllable shape may generalize well beyond the specific sound or sounds targeted in that position. These ideas are explored in this article, along with specific therapy results and recommendations for various phonotactic limitations.

REFERENCES

• 1 Grunwell P. Clinical Phonology.  Rockville, MD: Aspen 1982
  Google Scholar
• 2 Ingram D. Phonological Disability in Children, 2nd ed. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group . 1990
  Google Scholar
• 3 Davis B, MacNeilage P. The articulatory basis of babbling.  J Speech Hear Res . 1995;  38 1199-1211
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 4 Bleile K M. Manual of Articulation and Phonological Disorders: Infancy through Adulthood.  San Diego: Singular 1995
  Google Scholar
• 5 Bernhardt B. Phonological intervention techniques for syllable and word structure development.  Clin Commun Disord . 1994;  4 54-65
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 6 Bernhardt B, Stoel-Gammon C. Nonlinear phonology: introduction and clinical application.  J Speech Hear Res . 1994;  37 123-143
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 7 Velleman S. Making Phonology Functional: What Do I Do First?. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann 1998
  Google Scholar
• 8 Yavas M. Phonology: Development and Disorders.  San Diego: Singular 1998
  Google Scholar
• 9 Chomsky N, Halle M. The Sound Pattern of English.  New York: Harper & Row 1968
  Google Scholar
• 10 Donegan P J, Stampe D. The study of natural phonology. In: Dinnsen DA, ed. Current Approaches to Phonological Theory Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press 1979: 126-173
  Google Scholar
• 11 Demuth K, Fee E J. Minimal words in early phonological development.  Brown University and Dalhousie University: Ms 1995
  Google Scholar
• 12 Kehoe M M, Stoel-Gammon C. Development of syllable structure in English-speaking children with particular reference to rhymes.  J Child Lang . 2001;  28 393-432
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 13 Vihman M M, Velleman S L. Phonetics and the origins of phonology. In: Burton-Roberts N, Carr P, Docherty G, eds. Conceptual and Empirical Foundations of Phonology. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2000: 305-339
  Google Scholar
• 14 Berman R A. Natural phonological processes at the one-word stage.  Lingua . 1977;  43 1-21
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 15 Velleman S L. The interaction of phonetics and phonology in developmental verbal dyspraxia: two case studies.  Clin Commun Disord . 1994;  4 67-78
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 16 de Boysson-Bardies B, Vihman M M, Roug-Hellichius L, Durand C, Landberg I, Arao F. Material evidence of infant selection from target language: a cross-linguistic phonetic study. In: Ferguson C, Menn L, Stoel-Gammon C, eds. Phonological Development: Models, Research, Implications Timonium, MD: York Press 1992: 369-391
  Google Scholar
• 17 Stoel-Gammon C. Sounds and words in early language acquisition: the relationship between lexical and phonological development. In: Paul R, ed. Exploring the Speech-Language Connection Baltimore: Brookes 1998: 25-52
  Google Scholar
• 18 Vihman M M, Hochberg J G. Velars and final consonants in early words. In: Fishman JA, Tabouret-Keller A, Clyne M, et al, eds. The Fergusonian Impact Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter 1986: 37-49
  Google Scholar
• 19 Edwards M L. Word position effects in the production of fricatives. In: Bernhardt B, Gilbert J, Ingram D, eds. UBC International Conference on Phonological Acquisition Vancouver, BC: Cascadilla Press 1996: 149-158
  Google Scholar
• 20 Weiner F. Treatment of phonological disability using the method of meaningful minimal contrast: two case studies.  J Speech Hear Disord . 1981;  46 97-103
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 21 Bernhardt B H, Gilbert J. Applying linguistic theory to speech-language pathology: the case for nonlinear phonology.  Clin Linguist Phonet . 1992;  6 123-145
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 22 MacNeilage P F, Davis B L, Matyear C. Phonetic regression in first words?.  Speech Commun . 1997;  22(special issue) 269-277
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 23 Davis B L, MacNeilage P F, Matyear C. Acquisition of serial complexity in speech production: a comparison of phonetic and phonological approaches to first word production.  Phonetica (in press).
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 24 Kirkpatrick J, Stohr P, Kimbrough D. Moving Across Syllables. Tucson, AZ: Communication Skill Builders 1990 (Note: The Test of Syllable Sequencing Skills is packaged with Moving Across Syllables)
  Google Scholar
• 25 Gerken L. A metrical template account of children's weak syllable omissions from multisyllabic words.  J Child Lang . 1994;  21 565-584
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 26 Kehoe M, Stoel-Gammon C. Truncation patterns in English-speaking children's word productions.  J Speech Lang Hear Res . 1997;  40 526-541
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 27 Gerken L, McIntosh B J. The interplay of function morphemes and prosody in early language.  Dev Psychol . 1993;  29 448-457
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 28 Stoel-Gammon C. Phonological skills of 2-year-olds.  Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch . 1987;  18 323-329
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 29 Roberts J E, Burchinal M, Footo M M. Phonological process decline from 2;6 to 8 years. J Commun Disord 1990;23:205-217; cited by McLeod S, van Doorn J, Reed VA. Normal acquisition of consonant clusters.   Am J Speech Lang Pathol . 2001;  10 99-110
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 30 Greenlee M. Interacting processes in the child's acquisition of stop-liquid clusters.  Pap Rep Child Lang Dev . 1974;  7 85-100
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 31 Olmsted D. Out of the Mouths of Babes.  The Hague: Mouton 1971
  Google Scholar
• 32 Hodson B W, Paden E P. Targeting Intelligible Speech: A Phonological Approach to Remediation.  Austin, TX: Pro-Ed 1991
  Google Scholar
• 33 Smith N V. The Acquisition of Phonology: A Case Study.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1973
  Google Scholar
• 34 Gierut J A. Syllable onsets: clusters and adjuncts in acquisition.  J Speech Lang Hear Res . 1999;  42 708-726
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 35 Barlow J A. The structure of /s/-sequences: evidence from a disordered system.  J Child Lang . 2001;  28 291-324
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 36 Zimmerman I L, Steiner V G, Pond R E. Preschool Language Scale-3.  San Antonio, TX: Communication Skill Builders 1992
  Google Scholar
• 37 Hodson B. The Assessment of Phonological Processes-Revised.  Austin, TX: Pro-Ed 1986
  Google Scholar

1 This aspect of phonology is also referred to as the ``prosodic tier,'' but we will use the term phonotactic here to avoid confusion between syllable and word shapes versus intonation

2 Other languages have different stress patterns. For example, in French the last syllable of the word always gets the primary stress