Abstract
Study design: Cross-sectional questionnaire.
Objectives: To assess the degree of post traumatic stress symptomatology and its correlates amongst a group of new spinal cord injured patients.
Setting: The National Spinal Injuries Centre, Stoke Mandeville Hospital NHS Trust.
Method: Eighty-five participants with an average age of 32.6 years were assessed between 6 and 24 weeks post injury. Seventeen participants were female. Seventy per cent had complete lesions. Forty per cent had paraplegia and 60% had tetraplegia. Road traffic accidents were the most common cause of injury followed by falls and then sporting accidents. The Impact of Event Scale was used to measure the experience of intrusive thoughts about the trauma and avoidance of trauma related stimuli. Anxiety (SAI), depression (BDI) and dependency (FIM) were also measured.
Results: High levels of distress were evident in 14% of the sample. Trauma-related distress was significantly higher in female patients or patients with high levels of anxiety or depression.
Conclusion: In this sample, the rates of trauma-related distress following spinal cord injury were comparable to those found following other traumas and are of clinical significance.
Spinal Cord (2001) 39, 381–386.
Similar content being viewed by others
Article PDF
References
American Psychiatric Association. . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd edn Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association 1980
American Psychiatric Association. . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th edn Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association 1994
Yule W, Williams R, Joseph S . Post-traumatic stress disorder in adults In: Yule W (ed). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders: Concepts and Therapy Wiley: Chichester 1999 pp 1–24
Kennedy P. . Chapter 8, Volume 12: Spinal cord injuries. In: Bellack AS, Hersen M (eds of series), Johnston & Johnston (eds). Comprehensive Clinical Psychology Hersen: Pregamon Press 1998 pp 445–462
Go BK, DeVivo MJ, Richards JS . The epidemiology of spinal cord injury In: Stover SL, DeLisa JA, Whiteneck GG (eds). Spinal Cord Injury: Clinical Outcomes from the Model Systems Aspen: Maryland 1995 pp 21–55
Landsman IS, Baum CG, Arnkoff DB . The psychosocial consequences of traumatic injury J Behav Sci 1990 13: 156–164
Church J, Vincent C . Psychological consequences of medical accidents in personal litigants Br J Health Psych 1996 1: 167–179
Blaszcynski A et al. Psychiatric morbidity following motor vehicle accidents: A review of methodological issues Comprehen Psych 1998 39: 111–121
Davidson JRT, Foa EB . Diagnostic issues in posttraumatic stress disorder: considerations for the DSM-IV J Abnorm Psychol 1991 100: 346–355
Radnitz CL et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in veterans with spinal cord injury: Trauma-related risk factors J Traum Stress 1998 11: 505–520
Binks TM, Radnitz CL, Moran AI, Vinciguerra V . Relationship between level of spinal cord injury and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms Ann NY Acad Sci 1997 821: 430–432
Breslau N et al. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998 55: 626–631
Keane TM, Kaloupek DG . Comorbid psychiatric disorders in PTSD: Implications for research In: Yehuda R, McFarlane AC (eds). Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder New York Academy of Sciences: New York 1997 pp. 24–34
Kennedy P et al. A longitudinal analysis of psychological impact and coping strategies following spinal cord injury Br J Health Psych 2000 5: 157–172
Horowitz MJ, Wilner N, Alvarez W . Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress Psychosom Med 1979 41: 209–218
Zilberg NJ, Weiss DS, Horowitz MJ . Impact of Event Scale: A cross-validation study and some empirical evidence supporting a conceptual model of stress response syndromes J Consult Clin Psych 1982 50: 407–414
Robbins I, Hunt N . Validation of the IES as a measure of the long-term impact of war trauma Br J Health Psych 1996 1: 87–89
Schwarzwald J, Solomon Z, Matisyohu W, Mikulincer M . Validation of the Impact of Event Scale for psychological sequelae of combat J Consult Clin Psych 1987 55: 251–256
Spielberger C et al.. Manual for the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y) Consulting Psychology Press Inc: Palo Alto (CA) 1983
Beck AT, Steer ARA. . Beck Depression Inventory Manual Psychological Corporation: San Antonio (TX) 1987
Craig AR, Hancock K, Dickson HG . A Longitudinal investigation into anxiety and depression in the first two years following spinal cord injury Paraplegia 1994 32: 675–679
Crewe NM, Krause JS . Spinal cord injury; Psychological Aspects In: Kaplan B (ed). Rehabilitation Psychology Baltimore: Aspen 1987
Jacob K, Zachariah K, Bhattacharji S . Depression in spinal cord injury: methodological issues Paraplegia 1995 33: 377–380
Judd F, Brown D, Burrows D . Depression, disease and disability: Application to patients with traumatic spinal cord injury Paraplegia 1991 29: 91–96
Hamilton B, Granger C. . Guide for the use of the uniform data set for medical rehabilitation Research Foundation of State University of New York: Buffalo, NY 1990
Church J (ed.) . Social Trends 25 Newport: Central Statistics Office 1995
Horowitz MJ . Stress response syndromes and their treatment In: Goldberg L, Breznitzen S (eds). Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects 1982 Free Press: New York. Cited in Church & Vincent 1996
Craig AR, Hancock K, Dickson H, Chang E . Long-term psychological outcomes in spinal cord injured persons: Results of a controlled trial using cognitive behavior therapy Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997 78: 33–38
Breslau N et al. Sex differences in post traumatic stress disorder Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997 54: 1044–1048
Radnitz CL et al. The prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder in veterans with spinal cord injury Sci Psychosocial Process 1995 8: 145–149
Horowitz M, Wilner N, Alvarez MA . Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress Psychosom Med 1979 41: 209–218
Spurrell MT, McFarlane AC . Life-events and psychiatric symptoms in a general psychiatry clinic: The role of intrusion and avoidance Br J Med Psych 1995 68: 333–340
Ehlers A, Clark DM . A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder Behav Res Ther 2000 38: 319–345
Herrick SM et al. Social support and depression following spinal cord injury Rehabil Psych 1992 37: 37–48
Anson CA, Stanwyck DJ, Krause JS . Social support and health status in spinal cord injury Paraplegia 1993 31: 632–638
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kennedy, P., Evans, M. Evaluation of post traumatic distress in the first 6 months following SCI. Spinal Cord 39, 381–386 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.sc.3101172
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.sc.3101172
Keywords
This article is cited by
-
Psychometric properties of the spinal cord injury-quality of life (SCI-QOL) Resilience item bank in a sample with spinal cord injury and chronic pain
Quality of Life Research (2022)
-
Perceived injustice after spinal cord injury: evidence for a distinct psychological construct
Spinal Cord (2019)
-
Posttraumatic stress following spinal cord injury: a systematic review of risk and vulnerability factors
Spinal Cord (2017)
-
Event centrality as a unique predictor of posttraumatic stress symptoms and perceived disability following spinal cord injury
Spinal Cord (2017)
-
Views of people with traumatic spinal cord injury about the components of self-management programs and program delivery: a Canadian pilot study
BMC Neurology (2014)