Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Eating patterns and dietary composition in relation to BMI in younger and older adults

International Journal of Obesity volume 31, pages 675–684 (2007)Cite this article

Abstract

Objective:

To compare relative associations of eating patterns and dietary composition with body mass index (BMI) in younger (aged 20–59 years, n=1792) and older (aged 60–90 years, n=893) participants in the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, collected 1994–1996.

Methods:

Data from two 24-h dietary recalls from individuals reporting physiologically plausible energy intake (within ±22% of predicted energy requirements, based on previously published methods) were used.

Results:

Mean reported energy intake was 96 and 95% of predicted energy requirements in younger and older subjects, respectively. Older subjects were less likely than younger subjects to skip a meal, but snacking was common in both age groups. Fiber density was significantly higher in the older group. A higher BMI in both age groups was associated with a higher total daily energy intake, and higher energy intakes at all eating occasions. In both age groups, eating frequency was positively associated with energy intake, and eating more than three times a day was associated with being overweight or obese. In the younger group but not the older group, a lower fiber density coupled with higher percentage of energy from fat was independently associated with having a higher BMI.

Conclusions:

While no one eating occasion contributes more than any other to excess adiposity, eating more often than three times a day may play a role in overweight and obesity in both younger and older persons. A reduced satiety response to dietary fiber in addition to lower energy expenditure may potentially further contribute to weight gain in older persons.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Accession codes

Accessions

GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ

References

  1. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL . Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000. JAMA 2002; 288: 1723–1727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Steen B . Body composition and aging. N Engl J Med 1988; 46: 45–51.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Shimokata H, Tobin JD, Muller DC, Elahi D, Coon PJ, Andres R . Studies in the distribution of body fat: I. Effects of age, sex, and obesity. J Gerontol 1989; 44: M66–M73.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Roberts SB, Williamson DF . Causes of adult weight gain. J Nutr 2002; 132: 3824S–3825S.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Roberts SB, Pi-Sunyer FX, Dreher M, Hahn R, Hill JO, Kleinman RE et al. Physiology of fat replacement and fat reduction: effects of dietary fat and fat substitutes on energy regulation. Nutr Rev 1998; 56: S29–S49.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Willett WC . Dietary fat plays a major role in obesity: no. Obes Rev 2002; 3: 59–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Roberts SB . High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity: is there a connection? Nutr Rev 2000; 58: 163–170.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Roberts SB, McCrory MA, Saltzman E . The influence of dietary composition on energy intake and body weight. J Am Coll Nutr 2002; 21: 140S–145S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Kirk RR . 2nd plenary session of ‘body weight balance and regulation’. Role of dietary carbohydrate and frequent eating in body-weight control. Proc Nutr Soc 2000; 59: 349–358.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Bellisle F, McDevitt R, Prentice AM . Meal frequency and energy balance. Br J Nutr 1997; 77: S57–S70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Ma Y, Bertone ER, Stanek EJI, Reed GW, Hebert JR, Cohen NL et al. Association between eating patterns and obesity in a free-living US adult population. Am J Epidemiol 2003; 158: 85–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Fricker J, Giroux S, Fumeron F, Apfelbaum M . Circadian rhythm of energy intake and corpulence status in adults. Int J Obes 1990; 14: 387–393.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Cho S, Dietrich M, Brown CJP, Clark CA, Block G . The effect of breakfast type on total daily energy intake and body mass index: results from the Third national Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Am Coll Nutr 2003; 22: 296–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Ortega RM, Redondo MR, Lopez-Sobaler AM, Quintas ME, Zamora MJ, Andres P et al. Associations between obesity, breakfast-time food habits and intake of energy and nutrients in a group of elderly Madrid residents. J Am Coll Nutr 1996; 15: 65–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Andersson I, Rossner S . Meal patterns in obese and normal weight men: the ‘Gustaf’ study. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996; 50: 639–646.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Summerbell CD, Moody RC, Shanks J, Stock MJ, Geissler C . Relationship between feeding pattern and body mass index in 220 free-living people in four age groups. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996; 50: 513–519.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Song Y, Buring JE, Manson JE, Liu S . A prospective study of red meat consumption and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and elderly women. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2108–2115.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Drummond S, Crombie N, Kirk T . A critique of the effects of snacking on body weight status. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996; 50: 779–783.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Forslund HB, Torgerson J, Sjostrom L, Lindroos AK . Snacking frequency in relation to energy intake and food choices in obese men and women compared to a reference population. Int J Obes 2005; 29: 711–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Basdevant A, Craplet C, Guy-Grand B . Snacking patterns in obese French women. Appetite 1993; 21: 17–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Summerbell CD, Moody RC, Shanks J, Stock MJ, Geissler C . Sources of energy from meals versus snacks in 220 people in four age groups. Eur J Clin Nutr 1995; 49: 33–41.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Huang TT-K, Roberts SB, Howarth NC, McCrory MA . Effect of screening out implausible energy intake reports on relationships between diet and BMI. Obes Res 2005; 13: 1205–1217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Schoeller DA, Bandini LG, Dietz WH . Inaccuracies in self-reported intake identified by comparison with the doubly labeled water method. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1990; 68: 941–949.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Schoeller DA . Limitations in the assessment of dietary energy intake by self-report. Metabolism 1995; 44: 18–22.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Bingham SA, Cassidy A, Cole TJ, Welch A, Runswick SA, Black AE et al. Validation of weighed records and other methods of dietary assessment using the 24 h urine nitrogen technique and other biological markers. Br J Nutr 1995; 73: 531–550.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Hirvonen T, Mannisto S, Roos E, Pietinen P . Increasing prevalence of underreporting does not necessarily distort dietary surveys. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997; 51: 297–301.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Lafay L, Basdevant A, Charles MA, Balkau B, Borys JM, Eschwege E et al. Determinants and nature of dietary underreporting in a free-living population: the Fleurbaix Laventie Ville Sante (FLVS) Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1997; 21: 567–573.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Poppitt SD, Swann D, Black AE, Prentice AM . Assessment of selective under-reporting of food intake by both obese and non-obese women in a metabolic facility. Int J Obes 1998; 22: 303–311.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Rolls BJ, Dimeo KA, Shide DJ . Age-related impairments in the regulation of food intake. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 62: 923–931.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Roberts SB, Fuss P, Heyman MB, Evans WJ, Tsay R, Rasmussen H et al. Control of food intake in older men. JAMA 1994; 272: 1601–1606.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Moriguti JC, Das SK, Saltzman E, Corrales A, McCrory MA, Greenberg AS et al. Effects of a 6-week hypocaloric diet on changes in body composition, hunger, and subsequent weight regain in healthy young and older adults. J Gerontol Biol Sci 2000; 55A: B580–B587.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Morley JE . Anorexia of aging: physiologic and pathologic. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66: 760–773.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. MacIntosh CG, Morley JE, Chapman IM . The anorexia of aging. Nutrition 2000; 16: 983–995.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Roberts SB, Hays NP . Regulation of Energy Intake in Old Age. Functional Neurobiology of Aging. Academic Press: New York, 2001, pp 829–837.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  35. Drewnowski A, Henderson SA, Driscoll A, Rolls BJ . The dietary variety score: assessing diet quality in healthy young and older adults. J Am Diet Assoc 1997; 97: 266–271.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Hjartaker A, Lund E . Relationship between dietary habits, age, lifestyle, and socio-economic status among adult Norwegian women. The Norwegian women and cancer study. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998; 52: 565–572.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Roberts SB, Hajduk CL, Howarth NC, Russell R, McCrory MA . Dietary variety predicts low body mass index and inadequate macronutrient and micronutrient intakes in community-dwelling older adults. J Gerontol Biol Sci 2005; 60: 613–621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Howarth NC, Huang TT-K, Roberts SB, McCrory MA . Dietary fiber and fat associations with excess weight in young and middle-aged US adults. J Am Diet Assoc 2005; 105: 1365–1372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Huang TT-K, Howarth NC, Lin B-H, Roberts SB, McCrory MA . Energy intake and meal portions: associations with BMI percentile in US children. Obesity Res 2004; 12: 1875–1885.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Macdiarmid JI . The sugar–fat relationship revisited: differences in consumption between men and women of varying BMI. Int J Obes 1998; 22: 1051–1061.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. McCrory MA, Hajduk CL, Roberts SB . Procedures for screening out inaccurate reports of dietary energy intake. Public Health Nutr 2002; 5: 873–882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. US Dept of Agriculture ARS AFSRG. Data (CD-ROM) and documentation for the 1994–1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII)-Diet and Health Knowledge Survey. National Technical Information Service Accession No. PB98-500457, 1998.

  43. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids, Part 1. Institute of Medicine: Washington, DC, 2002, pp 7-1–7-69.

  44. Goldberg GR, Black AE, Jebb SA, Cole TJ, Murgatroyd PR, Coward WA et al. Critical evaluation of energy intake data using fundamental principles of energy physiology: 1. Derivation of cut-off limits to identify under-recording. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991; 45: 569–581.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Black AE . Critical evaluation of energy intake using the Goldberg cut-off for energy intake:basal metabolic rate. A practical guide to its calculation, use and limitations. Int J Obes 2000; 24: 1119–1130.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Chamontin A, Pretzer G, Booth DA . Ambiguity of ‘snack’ in British usage. Appetite 2003; 41: 21–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Clarkston WK, Pantano MM, Morley JE, Horowitz M, Littlefield JM, Burton FR . Evidence for the anorexia of aging: gastrointestinal transit and hunger in healthy elderly vs. young adults. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 1997; 41: R243–R248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Schiffman S . Changes in Taste and Smell with Age space:Psychophysical Aspects. Raven Press: New York, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Morley JE . Anorexia, sarcopenia, and aging. Nutrition 2001; 17: 660–663.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Horwitz BA, Blanton CA, McDonald RB . Physiologic determinants of the anorexia of aging: insights from animal studies. Annu Rev Nutr 2002; 22: 417–438.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. MacIntosh CG, Andrews JM, Jones KL, Wishart JM, Morris HA, Jansen JBMJ et al. Effects of age on concentrations of plasma cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and peptide YY and their relation to appetite and pyloric motility. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69: 999–1006.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Rolls BJ . Aging and appetite. Nutr Rev 1992; 50: 422–426.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. De Castro J . Age-related changes in spontaneous food intake and hunger in humans. Appetite 1993; 21: 255–272.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Evans WJ, Meredith CN . Exercise and nutrition in the elderly. In: Munro HN, Danforth DE (eds). Nutrition, Aging and the Elderly. Plenum Press: New York, 1989, pp 89–126.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  55. Howarth NC, Saltzman E, Roberts SB . Dietary fiber and weight regulation. Nutr Rev 2001; 59: 129–139.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Yao M, Roberts SB . Dietary energy density and weight regulation. Nutr Rev 2001; 59: 247–258.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Fabry P, Fodor J, Hejl Z, Braun T, Zvolankova K . The frequency of meals its relation to overweight, hypercholesterolaemia, and decreased glucose-tolerance. Lancet 1964; 2: 614–615.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Metzner HL, Lamphiear DE, Wheeler NC, Larkin FA . The relationship between frequency of eating and adiposity in adult men and women in the Tecumseh Community Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1977; 30: 712–715.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Kant AK, Ballard-Barbash R, Schatzkin A . Evening eating and its relation to self-reported body weight and nutrient intake in women, CSFII 1985–86. J Am Coll Nutr 1995; 14: 358–363.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Whybrow S, Kirk TR . Nutrient intakes and snacking frequency in female students. J Hum Nutr Diet 1997; 10: 237–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Drummond SE, Crombie NE, Cursiter MC, Kirk TR . Evidence that eating frequency is inversely related to body weight status in male, but not female, non-obese adults reporting valid dietary intakes. Int J Obes 1998; 22: 105–112.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Wahlqvist ML, Kouris-Blazos A, Wattanapenpaiboon N . The significance of eating patterns: an elderly Greek case study. Appetite 1999; 32: 23–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Ruidavets JB, Bongard V, Bataille V, Gourdy P, Ferrieres J . Eating frequency and body fatness in middle-aged men. Int J Obes 2002; 26: 1476–1483.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Keski-Rahkonen A, Kaprio J, Rissanen A, Rose RJ . Breakfast skipping and health-compromising behaviour in adolescents and adults. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003; 57: 842–853.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Johnson RK, Soultanakis RP, Matthews DE . Literacy and body fatness are associated with underreporting of energy intake in US low-income women using the multiple-pass 24-h recall: a doubly labeled water study. J Am Diet Assoc 1998; 98: 1130–1140.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Livingstone MBE, Black AE . Markers of the validity of reported energy intake. J Nutr 2003; 133: 895S–920S.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Luhrmann PM, Herbert BM, Neuhauser-Berthold M . Underreporting of energy intake in an elderly German population. Nutrition 2001; 17: 912–916.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Tomoyasu NJ, Toth MJ, Poehlman ET . Misreporting of total energy intake in older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 710–715.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Tomoyasu NJ, Poehlman ET . Misreporting of total energy intake in older African Americans. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 20–26.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Zizza C, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM . Significant increase in young adults' snacking between 1977–1978 and 1994–1996 represents a cause for concern! Prev Med 2001; 32: 303–310.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Cross AT, Babicz D, Cushman LF . Snacking habits of senior Americans. J Nutr Elderly 1995; 14: 27–38.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was supported in part by USDA/ERS/FANRP Grant No. 43-3AEM-2-80088. Contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the US Department of Agriculture. We thank Vanessa Howarth for technical assistance, Johanna Dwyer and Lynne Ausman for their helpful comments on the manuscript and Gerard Dallal for statistical help.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Hawai'i Cancer Research Center of Hawai'i, Honolulu, HI, USA

    N C Howarth

  2. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, USA

    T T-K Huang

  3. Energy Metabolism Laboratory, Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA

    S B Roberts

  4. USDA Economic Research Service, Washington, DC, USA

    B-H Lin

  5. School of Nutrition and Exercise Science, Bastyr University, Kenmore, WA, USA

    M A McCrory

Authors
  1. N C Howarth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. T T-K Huang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. S B Roberts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. B-H Lin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. M A McCrory
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M A McCrory.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Howarth, N., Huang, TK., Roberts, S. et al. Eating patterns and dietary composition in relation to BMI in younger and older adults. Int J Obes 31, 675–684 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803456

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803456

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links