Abstract
Abstract. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965) intends to measure a single dominant factor representing global self-esteem. However, several studies have identified some form of multidimensionality for the RSES. Therefore, we examined the factor structure of the RSES with a fixed-effects meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach including 113 independent samples (N = 140,671). A confirmatory bifactor model with specific factors for positively and negatively worded items and a general self-esteem factor fitted best. However, the general factor captured most of the explained common variance in the RSES, whereas the specific factors accounted for less than 15%. The general factor loadings were invariant across samples from the United States and other highly individualistic countries, but lower for less individualistic countries. Thus, although the RSES essentially represents a unidimensional scale, cross-cultural comparisons might not be justified because the cultural background of the respondents affects the interpretation of the items.
References *References marked with an asterisk were included in the meta-analysis.
2014). Random intercept EFA of personality scales. Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.001
(2015). On the factor structure of the Rosenberg (1965) General Self-Esteem Scale. Psychological Assessment, 27, 621–635. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000073
(1997). Norms and construct validity of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in Canadian high school populations: Implications for counseling. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 31, 82–92.
(1977). Self-efficacy toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychology Review, 84, 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
(2008). Examining the differential item functioning of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale across eight countries. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 1867–1904. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00372.x
(2006). On the performance of maximum likelihood versus means and variance adjusted weighted least squares estimation in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling, 13, 186–203. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1302_2
(1992). Using results from replicated studies to estimate linear models. Journal of Educational Statistics, 17, 341–362. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986017004341
(2000). Modeling acquiescence in measurement models for two balanced sets of items. Structural Equation Modeling, 7, 608–628. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0704_5
(*Blossfeld, H.-P.Roßbach, H.-Gvon Maurice, J.Eds.. (2011). Education as a lifelong process – The German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS) [Special Issue]. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 14(2 Suppl.), 1–330.
2012). A tutorial on hierarchically structured constructs. Journal of Personality, 80, 796–846. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00749.x
(1979). Reliability and validity assessment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage University Press.
(2008). Longitudinal Internet studies for the social sciences [Computer file]. Tilburg, The Netherlands: Tilburg University [Distributor]. Retrieved from http://www.lissdata.nl
. (2017). Rasch analysis of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale with African Americans. Psychological Assessment, 29, 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000347
(2008). What happens if we compare chopsticks with forks? The impact of making inappropriate comparisons in cross-cultural research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1005–1018. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013193
(2014). Fixed-and random-effects meta-analytic structural equation modeling: Examples and analyses in R. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 29–40. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0361-y
(2015). metaSEM: An R package for meta-analysis using structural equation modeling. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1521. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01521
(2005). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling: A two-stage approach. Psychological Methods, 10, 40–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.10.1.40
(2016). Analyzing big data in psychology: A split/analyze/meta-analyze approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 738. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00738
(2006). Further investigating method effects associated with negatively worded items on self-report surveys. Structural Equation Modeling, 13, 440–464. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1303_6
(2009). Self-esteem and method effects associated with negatively worded items: Investigating factorial invariance by sex. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 134–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510802565403
(1979). Further analyses of Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale. Psychological Reports, 44, 639–641. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1979.44.2.639
(2016). Extending structural analyses of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to consider criterion-related validity: Can composite self-esteem scores be good enough? Journal of Personality Assessment, 98, 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1058268
(2017). Anomalous results in g-factor models: Explanations and alternatives. Psychological Methods, 22, 541–562. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000083
(2004). Efficacy, self-derogation, and alcohol use among inner-city adolescents: Gender matters. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000013427.31960.c6
(2013). Self-esteem of secondary school students in Pakistan. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 14, 1325–1330.
(2004). Adolescent self-esteem in cross-cultural perspective: Testing measurement equivalence and a mediation model. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 719–733. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022104270114
(2010). Acquiescence as a source of bias and model and person misfit: A theoretical and empirical analysis. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 63, 427–448. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711009X470740
(2008). Psychometric properties of the Dutch Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Psychologica Belgica, 48, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb-48-1-25
(2015). Disclosure of sensitive behaviors across self-administered survey modes: A meta-analysis. Behavior Research Methods, 47, 1237–1259. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0533-4
(2017). Socially desirable responding in web-based questionnaires: A meta-analytic review of the candor hypothesis. Assessment, 24, 746–762. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115624547
(Cognitive abilities explain wording effects in the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117746503
(in press).2016). Parameter accuracy in meta-analyses of factor structures. Research Synthesis Methods, 7, 168–186. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1190
(1986). Personality and adaptive-innovative problem solving. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 1, 95–106.
(1982). Dogmatism and self-esteem: Further evidence. Psychological Reports, 51, 289–290. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1982.51.1.289
(1997). An item response theory analysis of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 443–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297235001
(2014). Response styles and personality traits: A multilevel analysis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 1028–1045. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114534773
(2016). Extreme response style as a cultural response to climato-economic deprivation. International Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12287
(1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106, 766–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.766
(1977). Differences between males and females on Rosenberg scale of self-esteem. Psychological Reports, 41, 829–830. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1977.41.3.829
(1976). Dimensions of Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale. Psychological Reports, 38, 583–584. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1976.38.2.583
(2012). Impact of high sex ratios on urban and rural China, 2009–2010 [Computer file]. Colchester, UK: UK Data Archive [Distributor]. https://doi.org/10.5255/UKDA-SN-7107-1
(2012). Factor structures of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: A meta-analysis of pattern matrices. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28, 132–138. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000101
(2015). Insufficient effort responding: Examining an insidious confound in survey data. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 828–845. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038510
(2010). Cultures and organizations. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
(2015). Meta-analytic structural equation modelling. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
(2005). The relation between culture and response styles: Evidence from 19 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36, 264–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022104272905
(1982). Application of a general theory of deviant behavior: Self-derogation and adolescent drug use. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 23, 274–294. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136487
(1969). Self-derogation and psychological adjustment. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 149, 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-196911000-00006
(1974). Little Jiffy, Mark IV. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34, 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447403400115
(2016). Avoiding methodological biases in meta-analysis. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 224, 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000251
(2015). Investigating the sensitivity of goodness-of-fit indices to detect measurement invariance in a bifactor model. Structural Equation Modeling, 22, 531–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.937791
(2015). Non-equivalence of measurement in latent variable modeling of multi group data: A sensitivity analysis. Psychological Methods, 20, 523–536. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000031
(2000). Maximum likelihood estimation of latent interaction effects with the LMS method. Psychometrika, 65, 457–474. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02296338
(2008). Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 815–852. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106296642
(2002). On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables. Psychological Methods, 7, 19–40. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.19
(1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224
(1996). Positive and negative global self-esteem: A substantively meaningful distinction or artifactors? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 810–819. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.810
(2013). Measurement invariance of Big-Five factors over the life span: ESEM tests of gender, age, plasticity, maturity, and la dolce vita effects. Developmental Psychology, 49, 1194–1218. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026913
(2010). Longitudinal tests of competing factor structures for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Traits, ephemeral artifacts, and stable response styles. Psychological Assessment, 22, 366–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019225
(2008). Power and sensitivity of alternative fit indices in tests of measurement invariance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 568–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.568
(2012). Validade de construto e consistência interna da escala deautoestima de Rosenberg para uma população de idososbrasileiros praticantes de atividades físicas
([Construct validity and reliability in Rosenberg’s self-steem scale for Brazilian older adults who practice physical activities] . Motricidade, 8, 5–15. https://doi.org/10.6063/motricidade.8(4).15482016). Method effects on an adaptation of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in Greek and the role of personality traits. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98, 178–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1089248
(2007). A Japanese version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Translation and equivalence assessment. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 62, 589–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.11.004
(2017). A revision of Hofstede’s individualism-collectivism dimension: A new national index from a 56-country study. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 24, 386–404. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-11-2016-019
(2007). Adolescent personality and self-esteem – An analysis of self-report and parental-ratings. Društvena istraživanja-Časopis za opća društvena pitanja, 1, 213–236.
(2010). Modeling differentiation of cognitive abilities within the higher-order factor model using moderated factor analysis. Intelligence, 38, 611–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.002
(2015). Promoting an open research culture. Science, 348, 1420–1422. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab2374
(1985). Global self-esteem scales: Unidimensional or multidimensional? Psychological Reports, 57, 383–389. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1985.57.2.383
(2014). Answers to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Retrieved from http://personality-testing.info/_rawdata/
. (1994). Two dimensions of self-esteem: Reciprocal effects of positive self-worth and self-deprecation on adolescent problems. American Sociological Review, 59, 391–407. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095940
(2012). Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS), 1991–2006. ICPSR20520–v2. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research [Distributor]. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR20520.v2
(2003). Repairing Tom Swift’s electric factor analysis machine. Understanding Statistics, 2, 13–43. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328031US0201_02
(2000). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Its dimensionality, stability and personality correlates in Estonian. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 701–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00132-4
(2017). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/
. (2012). The rediscovery of bifactor measurement models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47, 667–696. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2012.715555
(2016). Is the bifactor model a better model or Ii it just better at modeling implausible responses? Application of iteratively reweighted least squares to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51, 818–838. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2016.1243461
(2010). Bifactor models and rotations: Exploring the extent to which multidimensional data yield univocal scale scores. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92, 544–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.496477
(2012). When can categorical variables be treated as continuous? A comparison of robust continuous and categorical SEM estimation methods under suboptimal conditions. Psychological Methods, 17, 354–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029315
(2016). Evaluating bifactor models: Calculating and interpreting statistical indices. Psychological Methods, 21, 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000045
(2009). La escala de autoestima de Rosenberg: Validación para Chile en una muestrade jóvenes adultos, adultosy adultos mayors
([Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Validation in a representative sample of Chilean adults] . Revista Médica de Chile, 137, 791–800. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0034-988720090006000091965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
(2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
(2009). Testing structural equation models or detection of misspecifications? Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 561–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903203433
(2006). Psychometric evaluation of the General Health Questionnaire-12 and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in Hungarian and Slovak early adolescents. Studia Psychologica, 48, 69–79.
(2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Test of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8, 23–74.
(2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 53 nations: Exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 623–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.623
(2011). Current methodological considerations in exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29, 304–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282911406653
(2005).
(Modeling structures of intelligence . In O. WilhelmR. W. EngleEds., Handbook of understanding and measuring intelligence (pp. 241–263). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.1990). Global self-esteem as a correlate of work-related attitudes: A question of dimensionality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 276–288. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5401&2_26
(1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.420
(2010). Psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: Overall and across demographic groups living within the United States. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 33, 56–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278709356187
(2016). Individual and culture-level components of survey response styles: A multi-level analysis using cultural models of selfhood. International Journal of Psychology, 51, 453–463. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12293
(2011). Differential item functioning of the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale in the US and China: Measurement bias matters. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 14, 176–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2011.01347.x
(2013). Factor structure of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 748–764. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022112468942
(2002). Decomposing global self‐esteem. Journal of Personality, 70, 443–484. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.05017
(1995). Self-linking and self-competence as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of a measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65, 322–342. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6502_8
(2013). Explaining method effects associated with negatively worded items in trait and state global and domain-specific self-esteem scales. Structural Equation Modeling, 20, 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2013.769394
(2014). Global self-esteem and method effects: Competing factor structures, longitudinal invariance, and response styles in adolescents. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 488–498. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0391-5
(2016).
(Bias assessment and prevention in noncognitive outcome measures in context assessments . In S. KugerE. KliemeN. JudeD. KaplanEds., Assessing contexts of learning (pp. 229–253). Berlin, Germany: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45357-6_91997). Towards an integrated analysis of bias in cross-cultural assessment. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 13, 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.13.1.29
(2012). Factorial validity and invariance of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale among Portuguese youngsters. Social Indicators Research, 105, 482–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9782-0
(2011). National Survey for Wales, 2009–2010: Pilot study [Computer file]. Colchester, UK: UK Data Archive [Distributor]. https://doi.org/10.5255/UKDA-SN-6720–1
. (2003). Mean and covariance structure analyses: An examination of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale among adolescents and adults. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402239323
(2010). Measurement invariance in confirmatory factor analysis: An illustration using IQ test performance of minorities. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 29, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.2010.00182.x
(2008). An examination of the wording effect in the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale among culturally Chinese people. Journal of Social Psychology, 148, 535–551. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.148.5.535-552
(2006). Validity and reliability study of Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in Seremban school children. Malaysian Journal of Psychiatry, 15, 35–39.
(