Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Original Articles and Reviews

On Correlated Change in Personality

Published Online:January 16, 2017https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000256

Abstract

Abstract. Correlated change in personality is essential to understanding change and development. It refers to the question of whether and to what degree changes in personality are interrelated over time within and between individuals. Compared to the longstanding literature on personality development, relatively less research has focused on correlated change in personality. The main goal of this paper is thus to discuss the potential of this concept for the field of personality development. First, we define correlated change and propose a categorization framework with multiple dimensions. Second, we discuss several theoretical concepts of correlated change that help understand the patterns, causes, and mechanisms underlying correlated change in personality. Third, we briefly describe several statistical approaches to modeling correlated change. Fourth, we summarize previous research on correlated change in personality. We focus our research on (a) correlated change within the Big Five personality traits, and (b) between the Big Five personality traits and three domains of life. Finally, we conclude by discussing challenges and future directions of the concept for the field of personality development.

References

  • Allemand, M., Schaffhuser, K. & Martin, M. (2015). Long-term correlated change between personality traits and perceived social support in middle adulthood. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 420–432. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Allemand, M., Zimprich, D. & Hertzog, C. (2007). Cross-sectional age differences and longitudinal age changes of personality in middle adulthood and old age. Journal of Personality, 75, 323–358. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Allemand, M., Zimprich, D. & Martin, M. (2008). Long-term correlated change in personality traits in old age. Psychology and Aging, 23, 545–557. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Asendorpf, J. B. & van Aken, M. A. (1999). Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled personality prototypes in childhood: Replicability, predictive power, and the trait-type issue. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 815–832. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Baltes, P. B. & Lindenberger, U. (1997). Emergence of a powerful connection between sensory and cognitive functions across the adult life span: A new window to the study of cognitive aging? Psychology and Aging, 12, 12–21. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Biesanz, J. C., West, S. G. & Kwok, O. M. (2003). Personality over time: Methodological approaches to the study of short-term and long-term development and change. Journal of Personality, 71, 905–942. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bishop, J., Geiser, C. & Cole, D. A. (2015). Modeling latent growth with multiple indicators: A comparison of three approaches. Psychological Methods, 20, 43–62. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bleidorn, W. (2012). Hitting the road to adulthood: Short-term personality development during a major life transition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1594–1608. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bleidorn, W., Klimstra, T. A., Denissen, J. J., Rentfrow, P. J., Potter, J. & Gosling, S. D. (2013). Personality maturation around the world: A cross-cultural examination of social-investment theory. Psychological Science, 24, 2530–2540. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bollen, K. A. & Curran, P. J. (2006). Latent curve models: A structural equation perspective. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Branje, S. J. T., van Lieshout, C. F. M. & Gerris, J. R. M. (2007). Big Five personality development in adolescence and adulthood. European Journal of Personality, 21, 45–62. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Butler, E. A. & Randall, A. K. (2013). Emotional coregulation in close relationships. Emotion Review, 5, 202–210. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Caspi, A. & Roberts, B. W. (2001). Personality development across the life course: The argument for change and continuity. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 49–66. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Chow, P. I. & Roberts, B. W. (2014). Examining the relationship between changes in personality and changes in depression. Journal of Research in Personality, 51, 38–46. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Costa, P. T. Jr. & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Professional manual: Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Cronbach, L. J. & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • DeYoung, C. G. & Gray, J. R. (2009). Personality neuroscience: Explaining individual differences in affect, behavior, and cognition. In P. J. CorrG. MatthewsEds., The Cambridge handbook of personality psychology (pp. 323–346). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • DeYoung, C. G., Peterson, J. B. & Higgins, D. M. (2002). Higher-order factors of the Big Five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health? Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 533–552. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Digman, J. M. (1997). Higher-order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1246–1256. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ferrer, E. & McArdle, J. J. (2010). Longitudinal modeling of developmental changes in psychological research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 149–154. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Fleeson, W. (2007). Studying personality processes: Explaining change in between-persons longitudinal and within-person multilevel models. In R. W. RobinsR. C. FraleyR. F. KruegerEds., Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 523–542). New York, NY: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Fraley, R. C. & Roberts, B. W. (2005). Patterns of continuity: A dynamic model for conceptualizing the stability of individual differences in psychological constructs across the life course. Psychological Review, 112, 60–74. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Friedman, H. S. & Kern, M. L. (2014). Personality, well-being, and health. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 719–742. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gerlitz, J.-Y. & Schupp, J. (2005). Zur Erhebung der Big-Five-basierten Persönlichkeitsmerkmale im SOEP [Assessment of the Big Five traits in SOEP]. Research Notes, 4, 1–36. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Goldberg, L. R. (1999). A broad-bandwidth, public domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models. In I. MervieldeI. DearyF. De FruytF. OstendorfEds., Personality psychology in Europe (Vol. 7, pp. 7–28). Tilburg, The Netherlands: Tilburg University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Gough, H. G. & Bradley, P. (1996). CPI manual (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Graber, E. C., Laurenceau, J.-P. & Carver, C. (2011). Integrating the dynamics of personality and close relationship processes: Methodological and data analytic implications. Journal of Personality, 79, 1101–1137. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Graham, E. K. & Lachman, M. E. (2012). Personality stability is associated with better cognitive performance in adulthood: Are the stable more able? The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67, 545–554. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Grimm, K. J., An, Y., McArdle, J. J., Zonderman, A. B. & Resnick, S. M. (2012). Recent changes leading to subsequent changes: Extensions of multivariate latent difference score models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 19, 268–292. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hamaker, E. L., Kuiper, R. M. & Grasman, R. P. P. P. (2015). A critique of the cross-lagged panel model. Psychological Methods, 20, 102–116. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hertzog, C., Lindenberger, U., Ghisletta, P. & Oertzen, T. V. (2006). On the power of multivariate latent growth curve models to detect correlated change. Psychological Methods, 11, 244–252. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hertzog, C. & Nesselroade, J. R. (2003). Assessing psychological change in adulthood: An overview of methodological issues. Psychology and Aging, 18, 639–657. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hill, P. L., Allemand, M., Zehnder Grob, S., Peng, A., Morgenthaler, C. & Käppler, C. (2013). Longitudinal relations between personality traits and aspects of identity formation during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 413–421. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hill, P. L., Payne, B. R., Jackson, J. J., Stine-Morrow, E. A. & Roberts, B. W. (2014). Perceived social support predicts increased conscientiousness during older adulthood. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69, 543–547. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Mroczek, D. K. & Roberts, B. W. (2012). Examining concurrent and longitudinal relations between personality traits and social well-being in adulthood. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 698–705. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hofer, S. M., Flaherty, B. P. & Hoffman, L. (2006). Cross-sectional analysis of time-dependent data: Mean-induced association in age-heterogeneous samples and an alternative method based on sequential narrow age-cohort samples. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 41, 165–187. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hudson, N. W. & Fraley, R. C. (2015). Volitional personality trait change: Can people choose to change their personality traits? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 490–507. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hudson, N. W., Fraley, R. C., Brumbaugh, C. C. & Vicary, A. M. (2014). Coregulation in romantic partners’ attachment styles: A longitudinal investigation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 845–857. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hudson, N. W., Roberts, B. W. & Lodi-Smith, J. (2012). Personality trait development and social investment in work. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 334–344. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Human, L. J., Biesanz, J. C., Miller, G. E., Chen, E., Lachman, M. E. & Seeman, T. E. (2013). Is change bad? Personality change is associated with poorer psychological health and greater metabolic syndrome in midlife. Journal of Personality, 81, 249–260. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Jackson, J. J. & Allemand, M. (2014). Moving personality development research forward: Applications using structural equation models. European Journal of Personality, 28, 300–310. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Johnson, W. (2011). Correlation and explaining variance: To square or not to square? Intelligence, 37, 249–254. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kandler, C., Kornadt, A. E., Hagemeyer, B. & Neyer, F.-J. (2015). Patterns and sources of personality development in old age. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 175–191. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs (Vol. I, II) New York, NY: Norton. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klimstra, T. A., Bleidorn, W., Asendorpf, J. B., Van Aken, M. A. & Denissen, J. J. (2013). Correlated change of Big Five personality traits across the lifespan: A search for determinants. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 768–777. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Letzring, T. D., Edmonds, G. W. & Hampson, S. E. (2014). Personality change at mid-life is associated with changes in self-rated health: Evidence from the Hawaii Personality and Health Cohort. Personality and Individual Differences, 58, 60–64. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lodi-Smith, J. & Roberts, B. W. (2007). Social investment and personality: A meta-analysis of the relationship of personality traits to investment in work, family, religion, and volunteerism. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 68–86. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lodi-Smith, J. & Roberts, B. W. (2012). Concurrent and prospective relationships between social engagement and personality traits in older adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 27, 720–727. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lucas, R. E. & Donnellan, M. B. (2011). Personality development across the life span: Longitudinal analyses with a national sample from Germany. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 847–861. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lüdtke, O., Roberts, B. W., Trautwein, U. & Nagy, G. (2011). A random walk down university avenue: Life paths, life events, and personality trait change at the transition to university life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 620–637. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Marsh, H. W., Nagengast, B. & Morin, A. J. S. (2013). Measurement invariance of Big-Five factors over the life span: ESEM tests of gender, age, plasticity, maturity, and La Dolce Vita effects. Developmental Psychology, 49, 1194–1218. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Martin, M., Jäncke, L. & Röcke, C. (2012). Functional approaches to lifespan development: Towards aging research as the science of stabilization. Journal of Gerontopsychology and Geriatric Psychiatry, 25, 185–188. First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Martin, M., Schneider, R., Eicher, S. & Moor, C. (2012). The functional Quality of Life (fQOL) model: A new basis for Quality of life-enhancing interventions in old age. Journal of Gerontopsychology and Geriatric Psychiatry, 25, 33–40. First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Martin, M. & Zimprich, D. (2003). Are changes in cognitive functioning in older adults related to changes in subjective complaints? Experimental Aging Research, 29, 335–352. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mascherek, A. & Zimprich, D. (2011). Correlated change in memory complaints and memory performance across 12 years. Psychology and Aging, 26, 884–889. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McArdle, J. J. (2009). Latent variable modeling of differences and changes with longitudinal data. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 577–605. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McArdle, J. J. & Hamagami, F. (2001). Latent difference score structural models for linear dynamic analyses with incomplete longitudinal data. In L. M. CollinsA. G. SayerEds., New methods for the analysis of change (pp. 139–175). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • McArdle, J. J. & Nesselroade, J. R. (1994). Using multivariate data to structure developmental change. In H. W. ReeseS. H. CohenEds., Lifespan developmental psychology: Methodological contributions (pp. 223–267). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • McArdle, J. J. & Nesselroade, J. R. (2014). Longitudinal data analysis using structural equation models. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Meredith, W. & Tisak, J. (1990). Latent curve analysis. Psychometrika, 55, 107–122. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mõttus, R., Johnson, W., Starr, J. M. & Deary, I. J. (2012). Correlates of personality trait levels and their changes in very old age: The Lothian birth cohort 1921. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 271–278. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mroczek, D. K. & Spiro, A. (2003). Modeling intraindividual change in personality traits: Findings from the Normative Aging Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, 153–165. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mund, M. & Neyer, F. J. (2015). The winding paths of the lonesome cowboy: Evidence for mutual influences between personality, subjective health, and loneliness. Journal of Personality. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12188 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nesselroade, J. R. (1991). Interindividual differences in intraindividual change. In L. M. CollinsJ. L. HornEds., Best methods for the analysis of change: Recent advances, unanswered questions, future directions (pp. 92–105). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Neyer, F. J. & Lehnart, J. (2007). Relationships matter in personality development. Evidence from an 8-year longitudinal study across young adulthood. Journal of Personality, 75, 535–568. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Neyer, F. J., Mund, M., Zimmermann, J. & Wrzus, C. (2014). Personality-relationship transactions revisited. Journal of Personality, 82, 539–550. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Nye, C. D., Allemand, M., Gosling, S. D., Potter, J. & Roberts, B. W. (2015). Personality trait differences between young and middle-aged adults: Measurement artifacts or actual trends? Journal of Personality. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12173 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Parker, P. D., Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U. & Roberts, B. W. (2012). Personality and relationship quality during the transition from high school to early adulthood. Journal of Personality, 80, 1061–1089. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Preacher, K. J., Wichman, A. L., MacCallum, R. C. & Briggs, N. E. (2008). Latent growth curve modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Rast, P. & Hofer, S. M. (2014). Longitudinal design considerations to optimize power to detect variances and covariances among rates of change: Simulation results based on actual longitudinal studies. Psychological Methods, 19, 133–154. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Roberts, B. W. & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3–25. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Roberts, B. W. & Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality trait change in adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 31–35. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E. & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1–25. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Roberts, B. W. & Wood, D. (2006). Personality development in the context of the neosocioanalytic model of personality. In D. K. MroczekT. D. LittleEds., Handbook of personality development (pp. 11–39). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Roberts, B. W., Wood, D. & Caspi, A. (2008). The development of personality traits in adulthood. In O. P. JohnR. W. RobinsL. A. PervinEds., Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 375–398). New York, NY: Guilford. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Roberts, B. W., Wood, D. & Smith, J. L. (2005). Evaluating five factor theory and social investment perspectives on personality trait development. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 166–184. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Robins, R. W. & Tracy, J. L. (2003). Setting an agenda for a person-centered approach to personality development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68, 110–122. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403–428. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Schaffhuser, K., Allemand, M. & Martin, M. (2014). Personality traits and relationship satisfaction in intimate couples: Three perspectives on personality. European Journal of Personality, 28, 120–133. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Scollon, C. N. & Diener, E. (2006). Love, work, and changes in extraversion and neuroticism over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 1152–1165. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Selig, J. P. & Little, T. D. (2012). Autoregressive and cross-lagged panel analysis for longitudinal data. In B. LaursenT. D. LittleN. E. CardEds., Handbook of developmental research methods (pp. 265–278). New York, NY: Guilford Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Small, B. J., Hertzog, C., Hultsch, D. F. & Dixon, R. A. (2003). Stability and change in adult personality over 6 years: Findings from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, 166–176. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sliwinski, M. J. (2008). Measurement-burst designs for social health research. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 245–261. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Sliwinski, M. J., Hofer, S. M. & Hall, C. (2003). Correlated and coupled cognitive change in older adults with and without preclinical dementia. Psychology and Aging, 18, 672–683. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Soto, C. J. (2015). Is happiness good for your personality? Concurrent and prospective relations of the Big Five with subjective well-being. Journal of Personality, 83, 45–55. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Soto, C. J. & John, O. P. (2012). Development of Big Five domains and facets in adulthood: Mean-level age trends and broadly versus narrowly acting mechanisms. Journal of Personality, 80, 881–914. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Soto, C. J., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D. & Potter, J. (2011). Age differences in personality traits from 10 to 65: Big Five domains and facets in a large cross-sectional sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 330–348. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Specht, J., Egloff, B. & Schmukle, S. C. (2011). Stability and change of personality across the life course: The impact of age and major life events on mean-level and rank-order stability of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 862–882. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Specht, J., Egloff, B. & Schmukle, S. C. (2013). Examining mechanisms of personality maturation: The impact of life satisfaction on the development of the Big Five personality traits. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4, 181–189. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Staudinger, U. M. & Kunzmann, U. (2005). Positive adult personality development: Adjustment and/or growth? European Psychologist, 10, 320–329. First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Takahashi, Y., Edmonds, G. W., Jackson, J. J. & Roberts, B. W. (2013). Longitudinal correlated changes in conscientiousness, preventative health-related behaviors, and self-perceived physical health. Journal of Personality, 81, 417–427. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Terracciano, A., Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (2006). Personality plasticity after age 30. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 999–1009. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Walker, B. M. & Winter, D. A. (2007). The elaboration of personal construct psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 453–477. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Watson, D. & Humrichouse, J. (2006). Personality development in emerging adulthood: Integrating evidence from self-ratings and spouse ratings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 959–974. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • West, S. G., Ryu, E., Kwok, O. M. & Cham, H. (2011). Multilevel modeling: Current and future applications in personality research. Journal of Personality, 79, 2–50. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wille, B., Hofmans, J., Feys, M. & De Fruyt, F. (2014). Maturation of work attitudes: Correlated change with Big Five personality traits and reciprocal effects over 15 years. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35, 507–529. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wood, D. & Denissen, J. J. A. (2015). A functional perspective on personality trait development. In N. R. BranscombeK. ReynoldsEds., Psychology of change: Life contexts, experiences, and identities (pp. 97–115). New York, NY: Psychology Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wood, D., Hensler Gardner, M. & Harms, P. D. (2015). How functionalist and process approaches to behavior can explain trait covariation. Psychological Review, 122, 84–111. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Wu, W., Selig, J. P. & Little, T. D. (2013). Longitudinal data analyses. In T. D. LittleEd., Oxford handbook of quantitative methods: Volume 2 (pp. 387–410). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Zimmermann, J. & Neyer, F. J. (2013). Do we become a different person when hitting the road? Personality development of sojourners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 515–530. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zimprich, D., Allemand, M. & Lachman, M. E. (2012). Factorial structure and age-related psychometrics of the MIDUS personality adjective items across the life span. Psychological Assessment, 24, 173–186. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Zimprich, D. & Martin, M. (2002). Can longitudinal changes in processing speed explain longitudinal age changes in fluid intelligence? Psychology and Aging, 17, 690–695. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar