Skip to main content
Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409.217.3.108

Multinomial processing tree (MPT) models have become popular in cognitive psychology in the past two decades. In contrast to general-purpose data analysis techniques, such as log-linear models or other generalized linear models, MPT models are substantively motivated stochastic models for categorical data. They are best described as tools (a) for measuring the cognitive processes that underlie human behavior in various tasks and (b) for testing the psychological assumptions on which these models are based. The present article provides a review of MPT models and their applications in psychology, focusing on recent trends and developments in the past 10 years. Our review is nontechnical in nature and primarily aims at informing readers about the scope and utility of MPT models in different branches of cognitive psychology.

References

  • Aleman, A. , Böcker, K. B. E. , Hijman, R. , de Haan, E. H. F. , Kahn, R. S. (2003). Cognitive basis of hallucinations in schizophrenia: Role of top-down information processing. Schizophrenia Research, 64, 175–185. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Antonak, R. F. , Livneh, H. (1995). Randomized response technique: A review and proposed extension to disability attitude research. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 121, 97–145. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Ashby, F. G. , Prinzmetal, W. , Ivry, R. , Maddox, W. T. (1996). A formal theory of feature binding in object perception. Psychological Review, 103, 165–192. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Baldi, P. , Batchelder, W. H. (2003). Bounds on variances of estimators for multinomial processing tree models. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 47, 467–470. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bamber, D. , van Santen, J. P. H. (2000). How to assess a model’s testability and identifiability. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 44, 20–40. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. (1998). Multinomial processing tree models and psychological assessment. Psychological Assessment, 10, 331–344. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Chosak-Reiter, J. , Shankle, W. R. , Dick, M. B. (1997). A multinomial modeling analysis of memory deficits in Alzheimer’s and vascular dementia. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52B, 206–215. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Crowther, C. S. (1997). Multinomial processing tree models of factorial categorization. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 41, 45–55. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Riefer, D. M. (1980). Separation of storage and retrieval factors in free recall of clusterable pairs. Psychological Review, 87, 375–397. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Riefer, D. M. (1986). The statistical analysis of a model for storage and retrieval processes in human memory. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 39, 129–149. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Riefer, D. M. (1990). Multinomial processing models of source monitoring. Psychological Review, 97, 548–564. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Riefer, D. M. (1999). Theoretical and empirical review of multinomial process tree modeling. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6, 57–86. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Riefer, D. M. (2007). Using multinomial processing tree models to measure cognitive deficits in clinical populations. In R. W. J. Neufeld (Ed.), Advances in clinical cognitive science: Formal modeling of processes and symptoms (pp. 19–50). Washington, DC: APA Books. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Riefer, D. M. , Hu, X. (1994). Measuring memory factors in source monitoring: Reply to Kinchla. Psychological Review, 101, 172–176. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Romney, A. K. (1986). The statistical analysis of a general condorcet model for dichotomous choice situations. In B. Grofman, G. Owen (Eds.), Information pooling and group decision making (pp. 103–112). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Romney, A. K. (1988). Test theory without an answer key. Psychometrika, 53, 71–92. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Batchelder, W. H. , Romney, A. K. (1989). New results in test theory without the answer key. In E. E. Roskam (Ed.), Mathematical psychology in progress (pp. 229–248). Berlin: Springer. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bayen, U. J. , Erdfelder, E. , Bearden, J. N. , Lozito, J. P. (2006). The interplay of memory and judgment processes in effects of aging on hindsight bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32, 1003–1018. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bayen, U. J. , Murnane, K. , Erdfelder, E. (1996). Source discrimination, item detection, and multinomial models of source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 197–215. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bayen, U. J. , Nakamura, G. V. , Dupuis, S. E. , Yang, C.-L. (2000). The use of schematic knowledge about sources in source monitoring. Memory & Cognition, 28, 480–500. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bell, R. , Buchner, A. (in press). Valence modulates source memory for faces. Memory & Cognition. . First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bell, R. , Buchner, A. , & Mund, I. (2008). Age-related differences in irrelevant-speech effects. Psychology and Aging, 23, 377–391. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bellezza, F. S. (2003). Evaluation of six multinomial models of conscious and unconscious processes with the recall-recognition paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 779–796. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bender, R. H. , Wallsten, T. S. , Ornstein, P. A. (1996). Age differences in encoding and retrieving details of a pediatric examination. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 188–198. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bishara, A. J. , Payne, B. K. (2009). Multinomial process tree models of control and automaticity in weapon misidentification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 524–534. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brainerd, C. J. , Reyna, V. F. , Mojardin, A. H. (1999). Conjoint recognition. Psychological Review, 106, 160–179. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bröder, A. (in press). Semantically clustered words are stored with integrated context. Validating a measurement model for source memory, storage, and retrieval in free recall. Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bröder, A. , Bredenkamp, J. (1996). SLIP-technique, process dissociation model, and multinomial modeling: New tools to experimentally prove Freudian slips? [Slip-Technik, Prozessdissoziationsmodell und multinomiale Modellierung: Neue Werkzeuge zum experimentellen Nachweis “Freudscher Versprecher”?]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 43, 175–202. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Bröder, A. , Herwig, A. , Teipel, S. , Fast, K. (2008). Different storage and retrieval deficits in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment: A multinomial modeling analysis. Psychology and Aging, 23, 353–365. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bröder, A. , Meiser, T. (2007). Measuring source memory. Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology, 215, 52–60. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Bröder, A. , Noethen, D. , Schütz, J. , Bay, P. (2007). Utilization of covariation knowledge in source monitoring: No evidence for implicit processes. Psychological Research, 71, 524–538. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Bröder, A. , Schütz, J. (2009). Recognition ROCs are curvilinear – or are they? On premature arguments against the two-high-threshold model of recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 587–606. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Brown, V. (1998). Comparing parallel and sequential multinomial models of letter identification. In C. E. Dowling, F. S. Roberts, P. Theuns (Eds.), Recent progress in mathematical psychology (pp. 253–284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Buchner, A. , Bell, R. , Mehl, B. , Musch, J. (2009). No enhanced recognition memory, but better source memory for faces of cheaters. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30, 212–224. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buchner, A. , Erdfelder, E. (1996). On assumptions of, relations between, and evaluations of some process dissociation measurement models. Consciousness and Cognition, 5, 581–594. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buchner, A. , Erdfelder, E. (2005). Word frequency of irrelevant speech distractors affects serial recall. Memory & Cognition, 33, 86–97. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buchner, A. , Erdfelder, E. , Steffens, M. , Martensen, H. (1997). The nature of memory processes underlying recognition judgments in the process dissociation procedure. Memory & Cognition, 25, 508–517. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buchner, A. , Erdfelder, E. , Vaterrodt-Plünnecke, B. (1995). Toward unbiased measurement of conscious and unconscious memory processes within the process dissociation framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 137–160. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buchner, A. , Steffens, M. C. , Erdfelder, E. , Rothkegel, R. (1997). A multinomial model to assess fluency and recollection in a sequence learning task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50A, 631–663. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Buchner, A. , Steffens, M. C. , Rothkegel, R. (1998). On the role of fragmentary knowledge in a sequence learning task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51A, 251–281. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Caldwell, J. I. , Masson, M. E. (2001). Conscious and unconscious influences of memory for object location. Memory & Cognition, 29, 285–295. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Chechile, R. A. (1987). Trace susceptibility theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116, 203–222. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Chechile, R. A. (2004). New multinomial models for the Chechile-Meyer task: Comment. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 48, 364–384. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Chechile, R. A. (2007). A model-based storage-retrieval analysis of developmental dyslexia. In R. W. J. Neufeld (Ed.), Advances in clinical cognitive sciences: Formal modeling of processes and symptoms (pp. 51–79). Washington, DC: APA Books. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Chechile, R. A. (in press a). Modeling storage and retrieval processes with clinical populations with applications examining alcohol-induced amnesia and Korsakoff amnesia. Journal of Mathematical Psychology. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Chechile, R. A. (in press b). Pooling data versus averaging model fits for some prototypical multinomial processing tree models. Journal of Mathematical Psychology. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Chechile, R. A. , Meyer, D. L. (1976). A Bayesian procedure for separately estimating storage and retrieval components of forgetting. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 13, 269–295. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Clark, S. J. , Desharnais, R. A. (1998). Honest answers to embarrassing questions: Detecting cheating in the randomized response model. Psychological Methods, 3, 160–168. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Mahwah: Erlbaum (Revised edition). First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Conrey, F. R. , Sherman, J. W. , Gawronski, B. , Hugenberg, K. , Groom, C. J. (2005). Separating multiple processes in implicit social cognition: The Quad model of implicit task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 469–487. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Cüpper, L. , Erdfelder, E. (2004). Die Wortstammlänge beeinflusst kontrollierte, nicht aber automatische Gedächtnisprozesse im Wortstammergänzungsparadigma [The length of word stems influences controlled but not automatic memory processes in the word stem completion paradigm] Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology, 212, 167–176. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • De Houwer, J. (2003). The extrinsic affective Simon task. Experimental Psychology, 50, 77–85. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Dehn, D. , Erdfelder, E. (1998). What kind of bias is hindsight bias? Psychological Research, 61, 135–146. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dodson, C. S. (2007). Retrieval-based illusory recollections: Why study-test contextual changes impair source memory. Memory & Cognition, 35, 1211–1221. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dodson, C. S. , Darragh, J. , Williams, A. (2008). Stereotypes and retrieval-provoked illusory source recollections. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 460–477. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dodson, C. S. , Holland, P. W. , Shimamura, A. P. (1998). On the recollection of specific- and partial-source information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1121–1136. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Dodson, C. S. , Prinzmetal, W. , Shimamura, P. (1998). Using Excel to estimate parameters from observed data: An example from source memory data. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 30, 517–526. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Efron, B. , Tibshirani, R. J. (1997). An introduction to the bootstrap. New York: Chapman & Hall. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Ehrenberg, K. , Klauer, K. C. (2005). Flexible use of source information: Processing components of the inconsistency effect in person memory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 369–387. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Elandt-Johnson, R. C. (1971). Probability models and statistical methods in genetics. New York: Wiley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Bayen, U. J. (1991). Episodisches Gedächtnis im Alter: Methodologische und empirische Argumente für einen Zugang über mathematische Modelle Episodic memory and aging: Methodological and empirical arguments for an approach based on mathematical models. In D. Frey (Ed.), Bericht über den 37. Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in Kiel 1990 (Vol. 2, pp. 172–180). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Brandt, M. , Bröder, A. (2007). Recollection biases in hindsight judgments. Social Cognition, 25, 114–131. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Bredenkamp, J. (1998). Recognition of script-typical and script-atypical information: Effects of cognitive elaboration. Memory & Cognition, 26, 922–938. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Buchner, A. (1998a). Process-dissociation measurement models: Threshold theory or detection theory? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 83–97. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Buchner, A. (1998b). Decomposing the hindsight bias: A multinomial processing tree model for separating recollection and reconstruction in hindsight. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 387–414. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Buchner, A. (2003). Prozessdissoziationsprozedur: Quo vadis? [Process dissociation procedure: Quo vadis?]. Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology, 211, 17–25. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Cüpper, L. , Auer, T.-S. , Undorf, M. (2007). The four-states model of memory retrieval experiences. Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology, 215, 61–71. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Erdfelder, E. , Faul, F. , Buchner, A. (2005). Power analysis for categorical methods. In B. Everitt, D. Howell (Eds.), Encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science (pp. 1565–1570). London: Wiley. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Evans, J. S. B. T. (1977). Toward a statistical theory of reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 621–635. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Evans, J. S. B. T. , Over, D. E. (2004). If. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Garcia-Perez, M. A. (1990). A comparison of two models of performance in objective tests: Finite states versus continuous distributions. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 43, 73–91. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Garcia-Perez, M. A. (1993). In defence of “none of the above”. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 46, 213–229. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Garcia-Perez, M. A. (2000). Exact finite-sample significance and confidence regions for goodness-of-fit statistics in one-way multinomials. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 53, 193–207. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Garcia-Perez, M. A. , Frary, R. B. (1991). Finite state polynomic item characteristic curves. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 44, 45–73. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Garcia-Perez, M. A. , Nunez-Anton, V. (2004). On the chi-square approximation to the exact distribution of goodness-of-fit statistics in multinomial models with composite hypotheses. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 57, 73–96. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Garnham, A. , Oakhill, J. V. (2005). Accounting for belief bias in a mental model framework: Comment on Klauer, Musch, and Naumer (2000). Psychological Review, 112, 509–518. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Gawronski, B. , Ehrenberg, K. , Banse, R. , Zukova, J. , Klauer, K. C. (2003). It’s in the mind of the beholder: The impact of stereotypic associations on category-based and individuating impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 16–30. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Giesbrecht, B. , Dixon, P. (1999). Isolating the interference caused by cue duration in partial report: A quantitative approach. Memory & Cognition, 27, 220–233. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Golz, D. , Erdfelder, E. (2004). Effekte von L-Dopa auf die Speicherung und den Abruf verbaler Informationen bei Schlaganfallpatienten [Effects of L-Dopa on storage and retrieval of verbal information in stroke patients]. Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie, 15, 275–286. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Gonsalkorale, K. , Sherman, J. W. , & Klauer, K. C. (2009). Aging and prejudice: Diminished regulation of automatic race bias among older adults. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 410–414. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Gonsalkorale, K. , von Hippel, W. , Sherman, J. W. , Klauer, K. C. (2009). Bias and regulation of bias in intergroup interactions: Implicit attitudes toward muslims and interaction quality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 161–166. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Green, D. M. , Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: Wiley. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Greenwald, A. G. , McGhee, D. E. , Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hillstrom, A. P. , Logan, G. D. (1997). Process dissociation, cognitive architecture, and response time: Comments of Lindsay and Jacoby (1994). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 23, 1561–1578. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hu, X. (1999). Multinomial processing tree models: An implementation. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 689–695. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hu, X. (2001). Extending general processing tree models to analyze reaction time experiments. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 45, 603–634. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hu, X. , Batchelder, W. H. (1994). The statistical analysis of general processing tree models with the EM algorithm. Psychometrika, 59, 21–47. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hu, X. , Phillips, G. A. (1999). GPT.EXE: A powerful tool for the visualization and analysis of general processing tree models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 220–234. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hübner, R. , Volberg, G. (2005). The integration of object levels and their content: A theory of global/local processing and related hemisphere differences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 520–541. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Hulme, C. , Roodenrys, S. , Schweickert, R. , Brown, G. D. A. , Martin, S. , & Stuart, G. (1997). Word-frequency effects on short-term memory tasks: Evidence for a redintegration process in immediate serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1217–1232. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513–541. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Jacoby, L. L. (1998). Invariance in automatic influences of memory: Toward a user’s guide for the process dissociation procedure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1–36. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Jacoby, L. L. , Bishara, A. J. , Hessels, S. , Toth, J. P. (2005). Aging, subjective experience, and cognitive control: Dramatic false remembering by older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134, 131–148. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Johnson-Laird, P. N. , Byrne, R. M. J. (2002). Conditionals: A theory of meaning, pragmatics, and inference. Psychological Review, 109, 646–678. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Keefe, R. S. E. , Arnold, M. C. , Bayen, U. J. , Harvey, P. D. (1999). Source monitoring deficits in patients with schizophrenia: A multinomial modeling analysis. Psychological Medicine, 29, 903–914. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Keefe, R. S. E. , Arnold, M. C. , Bayen, U. J. , McEvoy, J. P. , Wilson, W. H. (2002). Source monitoring deficits for self-generated stimuli in schizophrenia: Multinomial modeling of data from three sources. Schizophrenia Research, 57, 51–67. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Kinchla, R. A. (1994). Comments on Batchelder and Riefer’s multinomial model for source monitoring. Psychological Review, 101, 166–171. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. (1996). Urteilerübereinstimmung für dichotome Kategoriensysteme [Interrater agreement for dichotomous categories]. Diagnostica, 42, 101–118. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. (2006). Hierarchical multinomial processing tree models: A latent-class approach. Psychometrika, 71, 7–31. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. (in press). Hierarchical multinomial processing tree models: A latent-trait approach. Psychometrika. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Batchelder, W. H. (1996). Structural analysis of subjective categorical data. Psychometrika, 61, 199–239. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Ehrenberg, K. (2005). Social categorization and fit detection under cognitive load: Efficient or effortful? European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 493–516. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Ehrenberg, K. , Wegener, I. (2003). Crossed categorization and stereotyping: Structural analyses, effect patterns, and dissociative effects of context relevance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 332–354. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Meiser, T. (2000). A source-monitoring analysis of illusory correlations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1074–1093. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Musch, J. (2005). Accounting for belief bias in a mental model framework? No problem! Reply to Garnham and Oakhill (2005). Psychological Review, 112, 519–520. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Musch, J. , & Naumer, B. (1999). On belief bias in syllogistic reasoning. Psychological Review, 107, 852–884. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Oberauer, K. (1995). Testing the mental model theory of propositional reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48A, 671–687. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Stahl, C. , & Erdfelder, E. (2007). The abstract selection task: New data and an almost comprehensive model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 680–703. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Voss, A. (2008). Effects of race on responses and response latencies in the weapon identification task: A test of six models. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1124–1140. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Wegener, I. (1998). Unraveling social categorization in the “Who Said What?” paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1155–1178. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Klauer, K. C. , Wegener, I. , Ehrenberg, K. (2002). Perceiving minority members as individuals: The effects of relative group size in social categorization. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 223–245. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Knapp, B. R. , Batchelder, W. H. (2004). Representing parametric order constraints in multi-trial applications of multinomial processing tree models. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 48, 215–229. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Krantz, D. H. (1969). Threshold theories of signal detection. Psychological Review, 76, 308–324. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Krauth, J. (1982). Formulation and experimental verification of models in propositional reasoning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 34A, 285–298. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Lensvelt-Mulders, G. J. L. M. , Hox, J. J. , van der Heijden, P. G. M. , Maas, C. J. M. (2005). Meta-analysis of randomized response research: Thirty-five years of validation. Sociological Methods & Research, 33, 319–348. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Li, X. , Schweickert, R. , Gandour, J. (2000). The phonological similarity effect in immediate recall: Positions of shared phonemes. Memory & Cognition, 28, 1116–1125. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Luce, R. D. (1963). A threshold theory for simple detection experiments. Psychological Review, 70, 61–79. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Malmberg, K. J. (2002). On the form of ROCs constructed from confidence ratings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 380–387. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Maris, E. (1995). Psychometric latent response models. Psychometrika, 60, 523–547. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Maris, E. (2002). The role of orthographic and phonological codes in the word and the pseudoword superiority effect: An analysis by means of multinomial processing tree models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 1409–1431. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mayr, S. , Buchner, A. (2006). Evidence for episodic retrieval of inadequate prime responses in auditory negative priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, 932–943. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mayr, S. , Buchner, A. (in press). Auditory negative priming endures response modality change, prime-response retrieval does not. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Mayr, S. , Buchner, A. , & Dentale, S. (2009). Prime retrieval of motor responses in negative priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35, 408–423. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Mayr, S. , Hauke, R. , Buchner, A. (in press). Auditory location negative priming: A case of feature mismatch. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • McBride, D. M. , Dosher, B. A. (1999). Forgetting rates are comparable in conscious and automatic memory: A process-dissociation study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 583–607. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McBride, D. M. , Dosher, B. A. , Gage, N. M. (2001). A comparison of forgetting for conscious and automatic memory processes in word fragment completion tasks. Journal of Memory and Language, 45, 585–615. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • McBride, D. M. , Shoudel, H. (2003). Conceptual processing effects on automatic memory. Memory & Cognition, 31, 393–400. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. (2000). Gedächtnisvorteil ausgeführter Handlungen: Anmerkungen zur multinomialen Gedächtnistheorie [The advantage of performed acts: Notes on multinomial memory theory]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 47, 1–12. First citation in articleAbstractGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. (2005). A hierarchy of multinomial models for multidimensional source monitoring. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1, 2–17. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. , Bröder, A. (2002). Memory for multidimensional source information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 116–137. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. , Hewstone, M. (2004). Cognitive processes in stereotype formation: The role of correct contingency learning for biased group judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 599–614. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. , Hewstone, M. (2006). Illusory and spurious correlations: Distinct phenomena or joint outcomes of exemplar-based category learning? European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 315–336. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. , Sattler, C. (2007). Boundaries of the relation between conscious recollection and source memory for perceptual details. Consciousness and Cognition, 16, 189–210. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. , Sattler, C. , & von Hecker, U. (2007). Metacognitive inferences in source memory judgements: The role of perceived differences in item recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1015–1040. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Meiser, T. , Sattler, C. , & Weißer, K. (2008). Binding of multidimensional context information as a distinctive characteristic of remember judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 32–49. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Menon, M. , Woodward, T. S. (2007). A comparison of one-high-threshold and two-high-threshold multinomial models of source monitoring. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 6, 279–290. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Miller, E. , Lewis, P. (1977). Recognition memory in elderly patients with depression and dementia: A signal detection analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 84–86. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Moshagen, M. (2009). multiTree: A computer program for the analysis of multinomial processing tree models. Manuscript submitted for publication. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Müller, B. (2004). A multinomial model to assess central characteristics of mental operators. Experimental Psychology, 51, 201–213. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Musch, J. , Bröder, A. , Klauer, K. C. (2001). Improving survey research on the world-wide web using the randomized response technique. In U. Reips, M. Bosnjak (Eds.), Dimensions of Internet science (pp. 172–192). Lengerich, Germany: Pabst. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Nosek, B. A. , Banaji, M. R. (2001). The Go/No-go association task. Social Cognition, 19, 625–666. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Oberauer, K. (2006). Reasoning with conditionals: A test of formal models of four theories. Cognitive Psychology, 53, 238–283. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ostapczuk, M. , Moshagen, M. , Zhao, Z. , Musch, J. (2009). Assessing sensitive attributes using the randomized-response-technique: Evidence for the importance of response symmetry. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 34, 267–287. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ostapczuk, M. , Musch, J. , Moshagen, M. (in press). A randomized-response investigation of the education effect in attitudes towards foreigners. European Journal of Social Psychology. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Ott, R. , Curio, I. , Scholz, O. B. (2000). Implicit memory to auditorily presented threatening stimuli – A process-dissociation approach. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 90, 131–146. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Payne, B. K. (2001). Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 181–192. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Pohl, R. F. , Gawlik, B. (1995). Hindsight bias and the misinformation effect: Separating blended recollections from other recollection types. Memory, 3, 21–55. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Prinzmetal, W. , Ivry, R. B. , Beck, D. , & Shimizu, N. (2002). A measurement theory of illusory conjunctions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 251–269. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ratcliff, R. , McKoon, G. (2001). A multinomial model for short-term priming in word identification. Psychological Review, 108, 835–846. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Read, T. R. C. , Cressie, N. A. C. (1988). Goodness-of-fit statistics for discrete multivariate data. New York: Springer. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Reiter, J. C. (2000). Measuring cognitive processes underlying picture naming in Alzheimer’s and cerebrovascular dementia: A general processing tree approach. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22, 351–369. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , Batchelder, W. H. (1988). Multinomial modeling and the measurement of cognitive processes. Psychological Review, 95, 318–339. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , Batchelder, W. H. (1991). Age differences in storage and retrieval: A multinomial modeling analysis. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 29, 415–418. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , Batchelder, W. H. (1995). A multinomial modeling analysis of the recognition-failure paradigm. Memory & Cognition, 23, 611–630. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , Chien, Y. , & Reimer, J. F. (2007). Positive and negative generation effects in source monitoring. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1389–1405. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , Hu, X. , Batchelder, W. H. (1994). Response strategies in source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 680–693. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , Knapp, B. R. , Batchelder, W. H. , Bamber, D. , & Manifold, V. (2002). Cognitive psychometrics: Assessing storage and retrieval deficits in special populations with multinomial processing tree models. Psychological Assessment, 14, 184–201. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , LaMay, M. L. (1998). Memory for common and bizarre stimuli: A storage-retrieval analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5, 312–317. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Riefer, D. M. , Rouder, J. N. (1992). A multinomial modeling analysis of the mnemonic benefits of bizarre imagery. Memory & Cognition, 20, 601–611. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Romney, A. K. , Batchelder, W. H. (1999). Cultural consensus theory. In R. A. Wilson, F. C. Keil (Eds.), The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences (pp. 208–209). Cambridge, MA: The MIT press. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Romney, A. K. , Batchelder, W. H. , Weller, S. C. (1987). Recent applications of cultural consensus theory. American Behavioral Scientist, 31, 163–177. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Romney, A. K. , Weller, S. C. , Batchelder, W. H. (1986). Culture as consensus – a theory of culture and informant accuracy. American Anthropologist, 88, 313–338. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Rothkegel, R. (1999). AppleTree: A multinomial processing tree modeling program for Macintosh computers. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 696–700. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Rouder, J. N. , Batchelder, W. H. (1998). Multinomial models for measuring storage and retrieval processes in paired associate learning. In C. E. Dowling, F. S. Roberts, P. Theuns (Eds.), Recent progress in mathematical psychology (pp. 195–225). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Rouder, J. N. , Lu, J. , Morey, R. D. , Sun, D. , Speckman, D. L. (2008). A hierarchical process-dissociation model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 370–389. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Schmitter-Edgecombe, M. , Marks, W. , Wright, M. J. , Ventura, M. (2004). Retrieval inhibition in directed forgetting following severe close-head injury. Neuropsychology, 18, 104–114. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Schweickert, R. (1993). A multinomial processing tree model for degradation and redintegration in immediate recall. Memory & Cognition, 21, 168–175. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Schweickert, R. , Chen, S. (2008). Tree inference with factors selectively influencing processes in a processing tree. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 52, 158–183. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Schweickert, R. , Chen, S. , Poirier, M. (1999). Redintegration and the useful lifetime of the verbal memory representation. International Journal of Psychology, 34, 447–453. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Sherman, J. W. , Gawronski, B. , Gonsalkorale, K. , Hugenberg, K. , Allen, T. J. , Groom, C. J. (2008). The self-regulation of automatic associations and behavioral impulses. Psychological Review, 115, 314–335. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Sherman, J. W. , Groom, C. J. , Ehrenberg, K. , Klauer, K. C. (2003). Bearing false witness under pressure: Implicit and explicit components of stereotype-driven memory distortions. Social Cognition, 21, 213–246. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Simons, J. S. , Dodson, C. S. , Bell, D. , Schacter, D. L. (2004). Specific- and partial-source memory: Effects of aging. Psychology and Aging, 19, 689–694. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Simons, J. S. , Verfaellie, M. , Galton, C. J. , Miller, B. L. , Hodges, J. R. , Graham, K. S. (2002). Recollection-based memory in frontotemporal dementia: Implications for theories of long-term memory. Brain, 125, 2523–2536. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, J. B. , Batchelder, W. H. (2008). Assessing individual differences in categorical data. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 713–731. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, J. B. , Batchelder, W. H. (in press). Beta-MPT: Multinomial processing tree models for addressing individual differences. Journal of Mathematical Psychology. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, R. E. , Bayen, U. J. (2004). A multinomial model of event-based prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 756–777. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, R. E. , Bayen, U. J. (2005). The effects of working memory resource availability on prospective memory: A formal modeling approach. Experimental Psychology, 52, 243–256. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Smith, R. E. , Bayen, U. J. (2006). The source of adult age differences in event-based prospective memory: A multinomial modeling approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32, 623–635. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Snodgrass, J. G. , Corwin, J. (1988). Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 34–50. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Spaniol, J. , Bayen, U. J. (2002). When is schematic knowledge used in source monitoring? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 631–651. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stahl, C. (2006). Multinomiale Verarbeitungsbaummodelle in der Sozialpsychologie. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 37, 161–171. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Stahl, C. , Degner, J. (2007). Assessing automatic activation of valence. A multinomial model of EAST performance. Experimental Psychology, 54, 99–112. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Stahl, C. , Klauer, K. C. (2007). HMMTree: A computer program for latent-class hierarchical multinomial processing tree models. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 267–273. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stahl, C. , Klauer, K. C. (2008). A simplified conjoint recognition paradigm for the measurement of gist and verbatim memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 570–586. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stahl, C. , Klauer, K. C. (2009). Measuring phantom recollection in the simplified conjoint recognition paradigm. Journal of Memory and Language, 60, 180–193. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stahl, C. , Klauer, K. C. , Erdfelder, E. (2008). Matching bias in the selection task is not eliminated by explicit negations. Thinking & Reasoning, 14, 281–303. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stahl, C. , Unkelbach, C. (2009). Evaluative learning with single versus multiple unconditioned stimuli: The role of contingency awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 35, 286–291. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Steffens, M. C. , Buchner, A. , Martensen, H. , Erdfelder, E. (2000). Further evidence on the similarity of memory processes in the process dissociation procedure and in source monitoring. Memory & Cognition, 28, 1152–1164. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Steffens, M. C. , Jelenec, P. , Mecklenbräuker, S. (2009). Decomposing the memory processes contributing to enactment effects by multinomial modeling. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 21, 61–83. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Steffens, M. C. , Jelenec, P. , Mecklenbräuker, S. , Thompson, E. M. (2006). Decomposing retrieval and integration in memory for actions. A multinomial modeling approach. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 557–576. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stenberg, G. (2006). Conceptual and perceptual factors in the picture superiority effect. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18, 813–847. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Stolz, J. A. , Merikle, P. A. (2000). Conscious and unconscious influences of memory: Temporal dynamics. Memory, 8, 333–343. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Strack, F. , Bless, H. (1994). Memory for non-occurrences: Metacognitive and presuppositional strategies. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 203–217. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Swets, J. A. (1961). Is there a sensory threshold? Science, 134, 168–177. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Tulving, E. , Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352–373. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Tulving, E. , Wiseman, S. (1975). Relation between recognition and recognition failure of recallable words. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 6, 79–82. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Ulrich, R. (2009). Uncovering unobservable cognitive mechanisms: The contribution of mathematical models. In F. Rösler, C. Ranganath, B. Röder, R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Neuroimaging of human memory: Linking cognitive processes to neural systems (pp. 25–41). New York: Oxford University Press. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Unkelbach, C. , Stahl, C. (2009). A multinomial modeling approach to dissociate different components of the truth effect. Consciousness and Cognition, 18, 22–38. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Vaterrodt-Plünnecke, B. , Krüger, T. , Bredenkamp, J. (2002). Process-dissociation procedure: A testable model for considering assumptions about the stochastic relation between consciously controlled and automatic processes. Experimental Psychology, 49, 3–26. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Vaterrodt-Plünnecke, B. , Krüger, T. , Gerdes, H. , Bredenkamp, J. (1996). Prozess-Dissoziations-Prozedur: Prüfbare Messmodelle zur Erfassung von kontrollierten, automatischen und Antworttendenz-Prozessen [Process-dissociation procedure: Testable models to measure controlled, automatic and bias processes]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 43, 483–519. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Vogt, V. , Bröder, A. (2007). Independent retrieval of source dimensions: An extension of results by Starns and Hicks (2005) and a comment on the ACSIM measure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 443–450. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • von Hecker, U. , Meiser, T. (2005). Defocused attention in depressed mood: Evidence from source monitoring. Emotion, 5, 456–463. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Vorberg, D. , Schmidt, R. (1975). A testable property of some discrete-state models for recognition memory. Psychological Review, 82, 316–324. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Warner, S. (1965). Randomized-response: A survey technique for eliminating evasive answer bias. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 60, 63–69. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wason, P. C. (1966). Reasoning. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), New horizons in psychology I. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Wegener, I. , De Beer, K. , Schilling, G. , Conrad, R. , Imbierowicz, K. , Geiser, F. , et al. (2008). Patients with obesity show reduced memory for others’ body shape. Appetite, 50, 359–366. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wegener, I. , Klauer, K. C. (2004). Inter-category versus intra-category fit: When social categories match social context. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 567–593. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Wegener, I. , Klauer, K. C. (2005). Social categorization without fit: The effect of gender categories on the encoding of senseless syllables. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 36, 91–101. First citation in articleLinkGoogle Scholar

  • Woodward, T. S. , Menon, M. , Hu, X. , & Keefe, R. S. E. (2006). Optimization of a multinomial model for investigating hallucinations and delusions with source monitoring. Schizophrenia Research, 85, 106–112. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Xu, M. , Bellezza, F. (2001). A comparison of the multimemory and detection theories of know and remember recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 1197–1210. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar

  • Yonelinas, A. P. , Jacoby, L. L. (1996). Response bias and the process dissociation procedure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 422–434. First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar