Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Association Between Family Factors and Depressive Disorders in Adolescents

  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The main aim of this study was to examine the familial factors (parental psychopathology and attachment to parents) in depressed adolescents. Another aim was to compare level of psychosocial impairment, use of mental health services, suicidal ideation and attempt, and the clinical features of depression (e.g., severity and age of onset) among depressed adolescents with depressed parent(s) with those whose parent(s) do not have any depression. Result showed that the adolescent depression was significantly associated with an elevated rate of having a depressed mother. Perceived level of attachment to parents, as measured using the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, was significantly lower among depressed adolescents than among adolescents without any psychiatric disorders. Depressed adolescents with depressed parents reported significantly higher suicidal ideation and had more recurrent depressive episodes than depressed adolescents with nondepressed parent(s). Our results imply the importance of shifting our focus from universal programs to family-based prevention and intervention programs for depression.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn.). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, E. J. (1987). Risk, vulnerability, and resilience: An overview. In Anthony, E. J., and Cohler, B. J. (eds.), The Vulnerable Child. New York, Guilford, pp. 3–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armsden, G. C., and Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence.J. Youth Adoloesc. 16: 427–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W., Keller, M. B., Lavori, P. W., Staley, J., and Sacks, N. (1993). The impact of parental affective disorder on depression in offspring: A longitudinal follow-up in a nonreferred sample. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 32: 723–730.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., Keller, M. B., Seifer, R., Lavori, P. W., Staley, J., Podorefsky, D., and Shera, D. (1996). Prediction of adolescent affective disorder: Effects of prior parental affective disorders and child psychopathology. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry.35: 279–288.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., Schulz, L. H., and Selman, R. L. (1987). Level of socio-cognitive development, adaptive functioning, and DSM-III diagnoses: Implications of the development of the capacity for mutuality. Dev. Psychol. 23 :807–815.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss: Sadness and Depression. Basic Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., and Cicchetti, D. (1990). Toward a transactional model of relations between attachment and depression. In Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D., and Cummings, E. M. (eds.), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 339–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., and Davies, P. T. (1994). Families, Conflict, and Con-flict Resolution: The Children's Perspective. Guilford, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1977). SCL-90-R, Administration, Scoring & Procedures Manual für die (Revised) Version. Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., and Petermann, F. (1999). Progress and unresolved issues. In Essau, C. A., and Petermann, F. (eds.), Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Treatment. Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ, pp. 461–486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., and Petermann, F. (2000). Frequency, comorbidity, and psychosocial impairment of depressive disorders in adolescents. J. Adolesc. Res. 15: 470–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Essau, C. A., Groen, G., Conradt, J., Turbanisch, U., and Petermann, F. (2001). Reliabilität und Validität der SCL-90-R: Ergebnisse der Bremer Jugendstudie. Z. Diff. Diagn. Psychol. 22: 139–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Essau, C. A., and Merikangas, K. R. (1999). Familial and genetic factors in depressed children and adolescents. In Essau, C. A., and Petermann, F. (eds.), Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Treatment. Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Essau, C. A., and Wittchen, H.-U. (1993). An overview of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Int. J. Methods Psychiatric Res. 3: 79–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fendrich, M., Warner, V., and Weissman, M. M. (1990). Family risk factors, parental depression, and psychopathology in offspring. Dev. Psychol. 26: 40–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., and Guthertz, M. (1990). Developmental psychopathology in children of depressed mothers. Dev. Psychol. 26: 7–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, K. A., and Harmon, R. J. (1996). Depressed mothers: They don't always look as bad as they feel. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 35: 289–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, I. H., and Sommerfeld, B. K. (1999). Cognitive functioning in depressed children and adolescents: A developmental perspective. In Essau, C. A., and Petermann, F. (eds.), Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Treatment. Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakim-Larson, J., and Essau, C. A. (1999). Protective factors. In Essau, C. A., and Petermann, F. (eds.), Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Treatment.Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (1991). Depression Runs in Families: The Social Context of Risk and Resilience in Children of Depressed Mothers.Springer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C., Adrian, C., Gordon, D., Burge, D., Jaenicke, C., and Hiroto, D. (1987). Children of depressed mothers: Maternal strain and symptom predictors of dysfunction. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 96: 190–198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C., and Goodman-Brown, T. (1990). Self-schemas and vulnerability to specific life stress in children at risk for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research 14: 215–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, K. M., Bryer, J. B., and Martines, K. A. (1991). SCL-90-R symptom patterns for adolescent psychiatric inpatients. J. Pers. Assess. 56: 168–178.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., and Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Arch. Pediatrics Adolesc. Med. 153: 226–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janca, A., Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., and Early, T. S. (1992). Clinical observation of assessment using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). An analysis of the CIDI field trials-Wave II at the St. Louis site. Br. J. Psychiatry 160: 815–818.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, M. B., Beardslee, W. R., Dorer, D. J., Lavori, P. W., Samuelson, H., and Klerman, G. L. (1986). Impact of severity and chronicity of parental affective illness on adaptive functioning and psychopathology in children. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 43: 930–937.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, D. N., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., and Rohde, P. (2001). A family study of major depressive disorder in a community sample of adolescents. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58: 13–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M., Devlin, B., Pollock, M., Richards, C., and Mukerji, P. (1997). A controlled family history study of childhood-onset depressive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 54: 613–623.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lustig, J. L., Wolchik, S. A., and Weiss, L. (1999). The New Beginnings Parenting Program for Divorced Mothers: Linking theory and intervention. In Essau, C. A., and Petermann, F. (eds.), Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Treatment.Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGough, J., and Curry, J. F. (1992). Utility of the SCL-90-R with depressed and conduct-disordered adolescent inpatients. J. Pers. Assess. 59: 552–563.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nada Raja, S., McGee, R., and Stanton, W. R. (1992). Perceived attachments to parents and peers and psychological well-being in adolescence. J. Youth Adolesc. 21: 471–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nottelmann, E. D., and Jensen, P. S. (1999). Comorbidity of depressive disorders in children and adolescents: Rates, temporal sequencing, course and outcome. In Essau, C. A., and Petermann, F. (eds.), Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Treatment. NJ. Jason Aronson, Northvale.

  • Orvaschel, H., Walsh-Allis, G., and Ye, W. (1988). Psychopathology in children of parents with recurrent depression. J. Aborm. Child Psychol. 16: 17–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poiltano, M., Stapleton, L., and Correll, J. (1992). Differences between children of depressed and nondepressed mothers: Locus of control, anxiety and self-esteem: A research note. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Appl. Discip. 33: 451–455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radke-Yarrow, M. (1998). Children of Depressed Mothers.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinherz, H. Z., Paradis, A. D., Giaconia, R. M., Stashwick, C. K., and Fitzmaurice, G. (2003). Childhood and adolescent predictors of major depression in the transition to adulthood. Am. J. Psychiatry 160: 2141–2147.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In Rolf, J., Masten, A. S., Cicchetti, D., Neuechterlain, K. H.,& and Weintraub, S. (eds.), Risk and Protective Factors in the Development of Psychopathology. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 181–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teri, D. M., Gelfand, D. M., Messsinger, D. S., and Isabella, R. (1995). Maternal depression and the quality of early attachment: An examination of infants, preschoolers, and their mothers. Dev. Psychol. 31: 364–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C., and van der Ende, J. (1997). Factors associated with child mental health service use in the community. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 36: 901–909.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warner, V., Mufson, L., and Weissman, M. M. (1995). Offspring at high risk for depression and anxiety: Mechanisms of psychiatric disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 34: 786–797.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M. M., Gammon, G. D., John, K., Merikangas, K. R., Prusoff, B. A., and Scholomskas, D. (1987). Children of depressed parents: Increased psychopathology and early onset of major depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 44: 847–853.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wittchen, H.-U., and Pfister, H. (1997). DIA-X-Manual: Instrumentsmanual zur Durchführung von DIA-X-Interviews.Swets & Zeitlinger, Frankfurt, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wittchen, H.-U., Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Sartorius, N., Burke, J. D., Regier, D., and participants in the Multicentre WHO/ADAMHA Fields Trails. (1991). Cross-cultural feasibility, reliability and sources of variance of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI): Results of the Multicenter WHO/ADAMHA Field Trials (Wave I).Br. J. Psychiatry 159: 645–653.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Cecilia A. Essau
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Essau, C.A. The Association Between Family Factors and Depressive Disorders in Adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 33, 365–372 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000037630.01098.d4

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000037630.01098.d4

Search

Navigation