Abstract
Despite interest in early neuropsychological status as a possible contributor to children's behavioral development, prospective longitudinal investigations of neuropsychological measures in relation to later behavioral outcomes in childhood are few. A 2-year longitudinal study in a nonselected childhood sample is reported. The study tested the influence of early neuropsychological performance (verbal fluency, mental inhibitory control, and visual spatial ability) on later childhood behavioral problems and social competency. Regular education children (n = 235) were assessed at three time points 1 year apart. To control for autocorrelation of outcome measures, Time 1 behavior was partialed while testing the effects of Time 1 neuropsychological scores on Time 3 outcome. To control for autocorrelation of neuropsychological scores, Time 2 scores were partialed while testing the predictive effect of Time 1 scores on Time 3 outcome. Both sets of regression models suggested modest but statistically significant effects for inhibitory control and verbal fluency, but not IQ, reading, or visual spatial ability, on behavioral outcome. Study results are consistent with a modest causal effect of selected neuropsychological skills on later behavioral adjustment. The findings support theories that implicate subtle neuropsychological dysfunction in the development of behavioral problems in childhood.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Achenbach, T. M. (1991a). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4–18, YSR, and TSR profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M. (1991b). Manual for the Teacher's Report Form and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive function: Constructing a unified theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.
Bates, J. E., Bayles, K., Bennet, D. S., Ridge, B., & Brown, M. M. (1991). Origins of externalizing behavior problems at eight years of age. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 93–120). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bender, L. (1946). Bender Motor Gestalt Test: Cards and manual of instructions. New York: American Orthopsychiatric Association.
Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (1997). Imaging cognition: An empirical review of PET studies with normal subjects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 1–26.
Cicchetti, D. (1984). The emergence of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 1–7.
Clausen, J. A. (1993). American lives: Looking back at the children of the great depression. New York: The Free Press.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cole, P. M., Usher, B. A., & Cargo, A. P. (1993). Cognitive risk and its association with risk for disruptive behavior disorder in preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 154–164.
Denckla, M. B. (1994). Measurement of executive function. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 117–142). Baltimore: Paul Brookes.
Denckla, M. B. (1996). Research on executive measures in a neurodevelopmental context: Application of clinical measures. Developmental Neuropsychology, 12, 5–15.
Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. (1978). Anomalies of motor development in hyperactive boys. Annals of Neurology, 3, 231–233.
Francis, D. J., Copeland, D. R., & Moore, B. D. (1994). Neuropsychological change in children with cancer: The treatment of missing data in longitudinal studies. Neuropsychology Review, 4, 199–222.
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competency in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97–111.
Golden, C. J. (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses. Chicago: Stoelting.
Goodman, S. H., Lahey, B. B., Fielding, B., Dulcan, M., Narrow, W., & Regier, D. (1997). Representativeness of clinical samples of youths with mental disorders: A preliminary population-based study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 3–14.
Greenberg, M. T., Kusche, C. A., Cook, E. T., & Quamma, J. P. (1995). Promoting emotional competence in school-aged children: The effects of The PATHS Curriculum. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 117–136.
Grodzinsky, G. M., & Diamond, R. (1992). Frontal lobe functioning in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 427–445.
Gunnar, M. R., & Nelson, C. A. (1992). Developmental behavioral neuroscience. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Hightower, A. D., Work, W. C., Cowen, E. L., Lotyczewski, B. S., Spinell, A. P., Guare, J. C., & Rohrbeck, C. A. (1986). The Teacher-Child Rating Scale: A brief objective measure of elementary children's school problem behaviors and competencies. School Psychology Review, 15, 393–409.
Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 127–155.
Hooper, S. R., & Tramontana, M. G. (1997). Advances in the neuropsychological bases of child and adolescent psychopathology: Proposed models, findings, and ongoing issues. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 133–175.
Hynd, G. W., & Hooper, S. R. (1992). Neurological basis of childhood psychopathology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kandel, E., Mednick, S. A. Kirkegaard-Sorensen, L., Hutchings, B., Knop, J., Rosenberg, R., & Schulsinger, F. (1988). IQ as a protective factor for subjects at high risk for antisocial behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 224–226.
Koppitz, E. M. (1963). The Bender Gestalt Test for young children. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Koppitz, E. M. (1975). The Bender Gestalt Test for young children: Vol. 2. Research and application. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Krasnegor, N. A., Lyon, G. R., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1997). Development of the prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior. Baltimore: Paul Brookes.
Kusche, C. A., Cook, E. T., & Greenberg, M. T. (1993). Neuropsychological and cognitive functioning in children with anxiety, externalizing, and comorbid psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 172–195.
Kusche, C. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (1994). The PATHS Curriculum. Seattle, WA: Developmental Research and Programs.
Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Hart, E. L., Frick, P. J., Applegate, B., Zhang, Q., Green, S. M., & Russo, M. F. (1995). Four-year longitudinal study of conduct disorder in boys: Patterns and predictors of persistence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 83–93.
Lezak, M. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lynam, D., Moffitt, T., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1993). Explaining the relation between IQ and delinquency: Class, race, test motivation, school failure, or self-control? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 187–196.
MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 163–203.
McCarthy, D. (1972). Manual for the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. Cleveland, OH: Psychological Corporation.
McGee, R., Williams, S., Moffitt, T., & Anderson, J. (1989). A comparison of 13–year old boys with attention deficit and/or reading disorder on neuropsychological measures. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 37–53.
Moffitt, T. E. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention-deficit disorder: Boys' developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 61, 893–910
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 135–152.
Moffitt, T. E., & Henry, B. (1989). Neuropsychological assessment of executive functions in self-reported delinquents. Development and Psychopathology, 1, 105–118.
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. (1988). Self-reported delinquency, neuropsychological deficit, and history of attention deficit disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 553–569.
Nigg, J. T., Hinshaw, S. P., Carte, E., & Treuting, J. (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of antisocial behavior and comorbid disruptive behavior disorders in children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 468–480.
Passler, M. A., Isaac, W., & Hynd, G. W. (1985). Neuropsychological development of behavior attributed to frontal lobe functioning in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 1, 349–370.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 51–87.
Reitan, R. M. (1958). Validity of the Trail Making Test as an indication of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8, 271–276.
Reitan, R. M. (1979). Manual for administration of neuropsychological test batteries for adults and children. Tucson, AZ: Author.
Rutter, M. (1987). The role of cognition in child development. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 60, 1–16.
Rutter, M., & Casaer, P. (1991). Biological risk factors for psychosocial disorders. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Sameroff, A., & Seiffer, R. (1990). Early contributors to developmental risk. In J. Rolf, A. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Neuchterlein, & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 52–66). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sattler, J. M. (1992). Assessment of children: Revised and updated third edition. San Diego: Author.
Sequin, J. R., Phil, J. R., Harden, R. O., & Tremblay, P. W. (1995). Cognitive and neuropsychological characteristics of physically aggressive boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 614–624.
Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Prior, M. (1996). Connections between reading disability and behavior problems: Testing temporal and causal hypotheses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 363–384.
Velting, O. N., & Whitehurst, G. J. (1997). Inattention-hyperactivity and reading achievement in children from low-income families. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 321–332.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation.
Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988). Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. Developmental Neuropsychology, 4, 199–230.
Weyandt, L. L., & Willis, W. G. (1994). Executive functions in school-aged children: Potential efficacy of tasks in discriminating clinical groups. Developmental Neuropsychology, 10, 27–38.
Williams, S., & McGee, R. (1994). Reading attainment and juvenile delinquency. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 441–459.
Wolff, P. H., Waber, D., Bauermeister, M., Cohen, C., & Ferber, R. (1982). The neuropsychological status of adolescent delinquent boys. Journal of Child-Psychology and Psychiatry, 23, 267–279.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nigg, J.T., Quamma, J.P., Greenberg, M.T. et al. A Two-Year Longitudinal Study of Neuropsychological and Cognitive Performance in Relation to Behavioral Problems and Competencies in Elementary School Children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 27, 51–63 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022614407893
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022614407893