Abstract
Coping, perceived control, dysphoria, hopelessness, and self-esteem in a sample of 100 battered women were assessed. Participants reported dysphoria and low self-esteem, but not hopelessness. High perceived control over current abuse and greater use of drugs, behavioral disengagement, denial, and self-blame as coping mechanisms were associated with increased dysphoria and low self-esteem. High expectations for control over future abuse were associated with decreased dysphoria and hopelessness and increased self-esteem. After controlling for the effects of abuse severity and low self-esteem, self-blame was a unique contributor to dysphoria and high expectations for control of future abuse were unique contributors to hopelessness. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for clinical intervention with battered women.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., and Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychol. Rev., 96: 358-372.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., and Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 87: 49-74.
Aguilar, R. J., and Nightingale, N. N. (1994). The impact of specific battering experiences on the self-esteem of abused women. J. Fam. Violence 9: 35-45.
American Psychological Association (1996). Violence and the Family: Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family, APA, Washington, DC.
Andrews, B., and Brewin, C. R. (1990). Attributions of blame for marital violence: A study of antecedents and consequences. J. Marriage Fam. 52: 757-767.
Barnett, O. W., and Martinez, T. E. (1996). The relationship between violence, social support, and self-blame in battered women. J. Interpers. Violence 11: 221-234.
Barnett, O. W., and Miller-Perlin, C. L., and Perrin, R. D. (1997). Family Violence Across the Lifespan: An Introducton, Sage, Thousand Oak, CA.
Beck, A. T., Riskind, J. H., Brown, G., and Steer, R. A. (1988). Levels of hopelessness in DSM III disorders: A partial test of content specificity in depression. Cogn. Ther. Res. 12(5): 459-469.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., and Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression, Guilford, New York.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., and Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 8: 77-100.
Beck, A. T., Weissman, A., and Kovacs, M. (1976). Alcoholism, hopelessness and suicidal behavior. J. Stud. Alcohol 37: 66-77.
Beck, A. T., Weissman, A., Lester, D., and Trexler, L. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The Hopelessness Scale. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 42: 861-865.
Bergman, B., and Brismar B. (1991). A 5-year follow-up study of 117 battered women. Am. J. Pub. Health 81: 1486-1489.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (1995). The Redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey, The United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC.
Cantos, A. L., Neidig, P. H., and O'Leary, K. D. (1993). Men and women's attributions of blame for domestic violence. J. Fam. Violence 8: 289-302.
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol's too long: Consider the brief COPE. Int. J. Behav. Med. 4: 92-100.
Cascardi, M., and O'Leary K. D. (1992). Depressive symptomology, self-esteem, and self-blame in battered women. J. Fam. Violence 7: 249-259.
Claerhout, S., Elder, J., and Janes, C. (1982). Problem-solving skills of rural battered women. Am. J. Community Psychol. 10: 605-612.
Clements, C. (1990). Perceptions of Control Style: A Construct Validation Approach, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Illinois.
Clements, C., and Sawhney, D. K. (2000). Coping with domestic violence: Control attributions, dysphoria, and hopelessness. J. Trauma. Stress 13: 219-240.
Doran, C. (1980). The Missionary Position: The Role of Rescue Fantasies in Maintaining Abusive Relationships, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Montreal, Canada.
Ferraro, K. J. (1983). Rationalizing violence: How battered women stay. Victimology 8: 203-212.
Finn, J. (1985). The stresses and coping behavior of battered women. Soc. Casework: J. Contemp. Soc. Work June: 341-349.
Fleming, J. S., and Courtney, B. E. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 46: 404-421.
Follingstad, D. R., Brennan, A. F., Hause, E. S., Polek, D. S., and Rutledge, L. L. (1991). Factors moderating physical and psychological symptoms of battered women. J. Fam. Violence 6: 81-95.
Follingstad, D. R., Neckerman, A. P., and Vormbrock, J. (1988). Reactions to victimization and coping strategies of battered women: The ties that bind. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 8: 373-390.
Gelles, R. J., and Harrop, J. W. (1989). Violence, battering and psychological distress among women. J. Interpers. Violence 4: 400-420.
Gleason, W. J. (1993). Mental disorders in battered women: An empirical study. Violence Vict. 8: 53-68.
Herman, J. L. (1986). Histories of violence in an outpatient population: An exploratory study. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 56: 137-141.
Holden, R. R., and Fekken, G. C. (1988). Test-retest reliability of the Hopelessness Scale and its items in a university population. J. Clin. Psychol. 44: 40-43.
Hotlzworth-Monroe, A. (1988). Causal attributions in marital violence: Theoretical and methodological issues. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 8: 331-344.
Housekamp, B. M., and Foy, D. W. (1991). The assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in battered women. J. Interpers. Violence 6: 367-375.
Jacobson, A., and Richardson, B. (1987). Assault experiences of 100 psychiatric inpatients: Evidence of the need for routine inquiry. Am. J. Psychiatry 144: 908-913.
Kaner, A., Bulik, C. M., and Sullivan, P. F. (1993). Abuse in adult relationships of bulimic women. J. Interpers. Violence 8: 52-63.
Kemp, A., and Green, B. L. (1995). Incidence and correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder in battered women. J. Interpers. Violence 10: 43-55.
Kendall, P. C., Hollon, S. D., Beck, A. T., Hammen, C. L., and Ingram, R. E. (1987). Issues and recommendations regarding use of the Beck Depression Inventory. Cogn. Ther. Res. 11: 289-299.
Launius, M. H., and Jensen, B. L. (1987). Interpersonal problem-solving skills in battered, counseling and control women. J. Fam. Violence 2: 151-162.
Lennings, C. J. (1992). Suicide and time perspective: An examination of Beck and Yufit's suicide-risk indicators. J. Clin. Psychol. 48: 510-516.
Marshall, L. (1992). Development of the Severity of Violence Against Women Scales. J. Fam. Violence 7: 103-121.
McCauley, J., Kern, D. E., Kolodner, K., Dill, L., Schroeder, A. F., DeChant, H., Ryden, J., Bass, E., and Derogatis, L. (1995). The “battering syndrome”: Prevalence and clinical characteristics of domestic violence in primary care internal medicine practices. Ann. Intern. Med. 123: 737-746.
Miller, D. T., and Porter, C. A. (1983). Self-blame in victims of violence. J. Social Issues 39: 139-152.
Mitchell, R. E., and Hodson, C. A. (1983). Coping with domestic violence: Social support and psychological health among battered women. Am. J. Community Psychol. 11: 629-654.
National Institute of Justice (1998). Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey, National Institute of Justice, Washington, DC.
Overholser, J. C., and Moll, S. H. (1990). Who's to blame: Attributions regarding causality in spouse abuse. Behav. Sci. Law 8: 107-120.
Painter, S. L., and Dutton, D. G. (1985). Patterns of emotional bonding in battered women: Traumatic boding. Int. J. Women's Stud. 57: 101-110.
Peterson, C., Maier, S. F., and Seligman, M. E. P. (1993). Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 238-239, 306.
Peterson, C., and Seligman, M. E. P. (1983). Learned helplessness and victimization. J. Soc. Issues 2: 103-116.
Peterson, C., and Seligman, M. E. P. (1984). Causal explanations as risk factors for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychol. Rev. 91: 347-374.
Rhodes, N. R., and McKenzie, E. B. (1998). Why do battered women stay?: Three decades of research. Aggression Viol. Behav. 3: 391-406.
Rodenburg, F. A., and Fantuzzo, J. W. (1993). The measure of wife abuse: Steps toward the development of a comprehensive assessment technique. J. Fam. Violence 8: 203-228.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Sackett, L. A., and Saunders, D. G. (1999). The impact of different forms of psychological abuse on battered women. Violence Vict. 14: 105-117.
Sato, R. A., and Heiby, E. M. (1992). Correlates of depressive symptoms among battered women. J. Fam. Violence 7(3): 229-245.
Saunders, D. G. (1994). Posttraumatic stress symptom profiles of battered women: A comparison of survivors in two settings. Violence Vict. 9: 3-44.
Scott-Gliba, E., Minne, C., and Mezey, G. (1995). The psychological, behavioral and emotional impact of surviving an abusive relationship. J. Forensic Psychiatry 6: 342-356.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The conflict tactics scales. J. Marriage Fam. 41: 75-88.
Straus, M. A., and Gelles, R. J. (1986). Societal change and change in family violence from 1975 to 1985 as revealed by two national surveys. J. Marriage Family 48: 465-479.
Tuel, B. D., and Russell, R. K. (1998). Self-esteem and depression in battered women: Comparison of lesbian and heterosexual survivors. Violence Against Women 4: 344-362.
Umberson, D., Anderson, K., Glick, J., and Shapiro, A. (1998). Domestic violence, personal control, and gender. J. Marriage Fam. 60: 442-452.
Valentiner, D. P., Holahan, C. J., and Moos, R. H. (1994). Social support, appraisals of event controllability, and coping: An integrative model. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 66: 1094-1102.
Vitaliano, P. P., DeWolfe, D. J., Maiuro, R. D., Russo, J., and Katon, W. (1990). Appraised changeability of a stressor as a modifier of the relationship between coping and depression: A test of the hypothesis of fit. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 59: 582-592.
Vitaliano, P. P., Russo, J., Weber, L., and Celum, C. (1993). The Dimensions of Stress Scale: Psychometric properties. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 23: 1847-1878.
Walker, L. E. (1984). The Battered Woman Syndrome, Springer, New York.
Walker, L. E. (1989). Terrifying Love, Harper and Row, New York.
Walker, L. E. (1991). Post-traumatic stress disorder in women: Diagnosis and treatment of battered woman syndrome. Psychotherapy 28: 21-29.
Walker, L. E. (1993). Legal self-defense for battered women. In Hansen, M. et al. (eds.), Battering and Family Therapy: A Feminist Perspective, Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 200-216.
Winkel, F., and Vrij, A. (1993). Crime victims' attributional activities and differential psychological responding to victimization: The influence of behavior, character and external explanations. Issues Criminol. Legal Psychol. 20: 58-69.
Young, M. A., Halper, I. S., Clark, D. C., Scheftner, W., and Fawcett, J. (1992). An item-response theory evaluation of the Beck Hopelessness Scale. Cogn. Ther. Res. 16: 579-586.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Clements, C.M., Sabourin, C.M. & Spiby, L. Dysphoria and Hopelessness Following Battering: The Role of Perceived Control, Coping, and Self-Esteem. Journal of Family Violence 19, 25–36 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOFV.0000011580.63593.96
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOFV.0000011580.63593.96