Abstract
Though the study of coparenting is still in its infancy, an explosion of coparenting research is in the wings. This paper identifies several emerging issues in coparenting theory and research to guide work in the years ahead, including issues in definition, conceptualization, and measurement; the interface between coparenting and adult development; and conceptual benefits that will accrue from studies of interadult coordination across diverse cultures and family systems. We emphasize that theory must lead empirical efforts, that across family systems the strongest coparental alliances are likely to be those in which the coparents both experience and provide support and solidarity for one another's parenting efforts with the children, and that measurement approaches need to be expanded so as to capture more comprehensively each family's organizational cooparenting structures and themes.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Abidin, R., & Brunner, J. (1995). Development of a parenting alliance inventory. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 24, 31–40.
Ablow, J. (1997, April). Marital conflict across family contexts: Does the presence of children make a difference? Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.
Ahrons, C. (1981). The continuing coparental relationship between divorced spouses. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51, 415–428.
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation.Oxford: Erlbaum.
Allen, J., Hauser, S., Eickholt, C., Bell, K., & O'Connor, T. (1994). Autonomy and relatedness in family interactions as predictors of expressions of negative adolescent affect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 535–552.
Apfel, N., & Seitz, V. (1991). Four models of adolescent mother-grandmother relationships in Black inner-city families. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 40, 421–429.
Apfel, N., & Seitz, V. (1999, April). Style of family support predicts teen mothers' subsequent childbearing and parenting success. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Albuquerque, NM.
Bearss, K., & Eyberg, S. (1998). A test of the parenting alliance theory. Early Education and Development, 9, 179–185.
Beitel, A., & Parke, R. (1998). Paternal involvement in infancy: The role ofmaternal and paternal attitudes. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 268–288.
Belsky, J., Crnic, K., & Gable, S. (1995). The determinants of coparenting in families with toddler boys: Spousal differences and daily hassles. Child Development, 66, 629–642.
Belsky, J., & Hsieh, K. (1998). Patterns of marital change during the early childhood years: Parent personality, coparenting, and division of labor correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 511–528.
Belsky, J., & Kelly, J. (1994). The transition to parenthood: How a first child changes a marriage. New York: Dell Publishers.
Black, M., Dubowitz, H., & Starr, R. (1999). African American fathers in low income, urban families: Development, behavior, and home environment of their three-year-old children. Child Development, 70, 967–979.
Brody, G., & Flor, D. (1996). Coparenting, family interactions, and competence among African-American youth. In J. McHale & P. Cowan (Eds.), Understanding how family-level dynamics affect children's development: Studies of two-parent families.New directions for child development (Vol. 74, pp. 77–92). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brody, G., Flor, D., & Neubaum, E. (1998). Coparenting processes and child competence among rural African-American families. In M. Lewis & C. Feiring (Eds.), Families, risk and competence (pp. 227–243). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brooks-Gunn, J., & Furstenberg, F. (1986). The children of adolescent mothers: Physical, academic, and psychological outcomes. Developmental Review, 6, 224–251.
Burton, L. (1995). Intergenerational patterns of providing care in African-American families with teenage childbearers: Emergent patterns in an ethnographic study. In V. Bengston, K. Schaie, & L. Burton (Eds.), Adult intergenerational relations: Effects of societal change (pp. 79–125). New York: Springer.
Carmola Hauf, A. M. (2004). Experiences of parenting alliance among couples raising young children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT.
Carmola Hauf, A. M., & Bond, L. A. (2003). The role of maternal gatekeeping in shaping paternal involvement and parenting alliance.Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL.
Cohen, N. (1999, April). Mother-co-caregiver relations, social support, parenting and child adjustment in single-parent African-American families. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Albuquerque, NM.
Cohen, R., & Weissman, S. (1984). The parenting alliance. In R. Cohen, B. Cohler, & S. Weissman (Eds.), Parenthood: A psychodynamic perspective (pp. 33–49). New York: Guilford.
Coley, L., & Chase-Lansdale, P. L. (1999). Stability and change in paternal involvement among urban African American fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 416–435.
Cowan, P., & Cowan, C. (1992). When partners become parents: The big life change for couples. New York: Basic Books.
Crosbie-Burnett, M., & Ahrons, C. (1985). From divorce to remarriage: Implications for therapy with families in transition. Journal of Psychotherapy and the Family, 1, 121–137.
Crosbie-Burnett, M., & Lewis, E. (1999). Use of African-American family structures and functioning to address the challenges of European-American postdivorce families. In S. Coontz (Ed.), American families (pp. 455–468). New York: Routledge.
Demick, J. (2002). Stages of parental development. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3: Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed., pp. 389–413). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Doherty, W., Kouneski, E., & Erickson, M. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 277–292.
Edwards, J., & Bagozzi, R. (2000). On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs andmeasures. Psychological Methods, 5, 155–174.
Ehrle, G. (2001). Grandchildren as moderator variables in the family, social, physiological, and intellectual development of grandparents who are raising them. In E. Grigorenko & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Family environment and intellectual functioning: A life-span perspective (pp. 223–241). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Entwisle, D., & Doering, S. (1981). The first birth: A turning point. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Feinberg, M. (2003). The internal structure and ecological context of coparenting: A framework for research and intervention. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3, 95–131.
Feldman, R., & Masalha, S. (1999, April). Patterns of interaction in Israeli and Arab families at the transition to parenthood: Traditional systems at periods of change. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Albuquerque, NM.
Feldman, R., Masalha, S., & Nadem, R. (2001). Cultural perspective on work and family: Dual-earner Israeli Jewish and Arab families at the transition to parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 492–509.
Fivaz-Depeursinge, E., & Corboz-Warnery, A. (1999). The primary triangle: A developmental systems view of mothers, fathers, and infants. New York: Basic Books.
Floyd, F., Costigan, C., & Gilliom, K. (1998). Marriage and the parenting alliance: Longitudinal prediction of change in parenting perceptions and behaviors. Child Development, 69, 1461–1479.
Frosch, C., Mangelsdorf, S., & McHale, J. L. (2000). Marital behavior and the security of preschooler-parent attachment relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 144–161.
Gable, S., Belsky, J., & Crnic, K. (1995). Coparenting during the child's second year: A descriptive account. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 609–616.
Goodman, C., & Silverstein, M. (2002). Grandmothers raising grandchildren: Family structure and well-being in culturally diverse families. Gerontologist, 42, 676–689.
Grych, J., & Clark, R. (1999). Maternal employment and development of the father-infant relationship in the first year. Developmental Psychology, 35, 893–903.
Hairston, C. (1991). Family ties during imprisonment: Important to whom and for what? Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 18, 87–104.
Hamer, J., & Marchioro, K. (2002). Becoming custodial dads: Exploring parenting among low-income and working-class African American fathers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 116–129.
Hilton, J., & Macari, D. (1997). Grandparent involvement following divorce: A comparison in single-mother and single-father families. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 28, 203–224.
Ho, D. (1986). Chinese patterns of socialization: A critical review. In M. Bond (Ed.), The psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 1–37). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Hooker, K., Fiese, B., Jenkins, L., & Morfei, M. (1996). Possible selves among parents of infants and preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 32, 542–550.
Katz, L., & Gottman, J. (1996). Spillover effects of marital con-flict: In search of parenting and coparenting mechanisms. In J. McHale & P. Cowan (Eds.), Understanding how familylevel dynamics affect children's development: Studies of twoparent families. New directions for child development (Vol. 74, pp. 57–76). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Katz, L., & Woodin, E. (2002). Hostility, hostile detachment, and conflict engagement in marriages: Effects on child and family functioning. Child Development, 73, 636–651.
Kitzmann, K. (2000). Effects of marital conflict on subsequent triadic family interactions and parenting. Developmental Psychology, 36, 3–13.
Kreppner, K. (1988). Changes in parent-child relationships with the birth of the second child. Marriage and Family Review, 12, 157–181.
Kurrien, R., & Vo, E. D. (2004). Who's in charge? Coparenting in south and Southest Asian immigrant families. Journal of Adult Development, 11(3), 207–219.
Lamb, M., & Oppenheim, D. (1989). Fatherhood and father-child relationships. In S. Cath, A. Gurwitt, & L. Gunsburg (Eds.), Fathers and their families (pp. 11–16). Mahwah, NJ: Hillsdale.
Leadbeater, B., & Way, N. (2001). Growing up fast: Transitions to early adulthood of inner-city adolescentmothers.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lerman, R. (1993). A national profile of young, unwed fathers. In R. Lerman & T. Ooms (Eds.), Young unwed fathers: Changing roles and emerging policies. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Levy-Shiff, R., & Israelashvili, R. (1988). Antecedents of fathering: Some further exploration. Developmental Psychology, 24, 434–440.
Lewis, J. (1989). The birth of the family. New York: Brunner/ Mazel.
Lewis, J., Owen, M., & Cox, M. (1988). The transition to parenthood, III: Incorporation of the child into the family. Family Process, 27, 411–421.
Lin, C., & Fu, V. (1990). A comparison of child-rearing practices among Chinese, immigrant Chinese, and Caucasian-American parents. Child Development, 61, 429–433.
Lindahl, K. (1998). Family process variables and children's disruptive behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 420–436.
Lindahl, K., & Malik, N. (1999). Marital conflict, family process, and boys' externalizing behavior in Hispanic and European-American families. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 12–24.
Liu, S., Sarin, D., Fan, Y., Rao, N., & McHale, J. (1999, April). Parenting beliefs, parenting practices, and coparenting conduct among Chinese, Indian, and American parents of preschoolers.Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association, Boston.
Maccoby, E., Depner, C., & Mnookin, R. (1990). Coparenting in the second year after divorce. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 141–155.
Margolin, G., Gordis, E., & John, R. (2001). Coparenting: A link between marital conflict and parenting in two-parent families. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 3–21.
McBride, B., & Rane, T. (1998). Parenting alliance as a predictor of father involvement: An exploratory study. Family Relations, 47, 229–236.
McConnell, M., Lauretti, A., Khazan, I., & McHale, J. (2003). Time to expand: Studying coparenting in families with multiple children. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL.
McHale, J. (1995). Co-parenting and triadic interactions during infancy: The roles of marital distress and child gender. Developmental Psychology, 31,985–996.
McHale, J. (1997). Overt and covert coparenting processes in the family. Family Process, 36, 183–210.
McHale, J., Berkman, J., Kavanaugh, K., Carleton, M., & Alberts, A. (2004). Discovery and construction: Uncovering early family-infant dynamics through the use of observational methodology. In C. Lightfoot, M. Lyra, & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Challenges and strategies for studying human development in cultural contexts. Stamford, CT.: Information Age Publishing.
McHale, J., & Fivaz-Depeursinge, E. (1999). Understanding triadic and family group interaction during infancy and toddlerhood. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 107–127.
McHale, J., Kazali, C., Rotman, T., Talbot, J., Carleton, M., & Lieberson, R. (in press). The transition to coparenthood: Parents' prebirth expectations and early coparental adjustment at three months postpartum. Development and Psychopathology.
McHale, J., Khazan, I., Erera, P., Rotman, T., DeCourcey, W., & McConnell, M. (2002). Coparenting in diverse family systems. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (2nd. ed., pp. 75–107). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
McHale, J., Kuersten-Hogan, R., Lauretti, A., & Rasmussen, J. (2000). Parents' reports of coparenting behavior are linked to observed coparental process. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 220–237.
McHale, J., Kuersten-Hogan, R., Lauretti, A., & Talbot, J. (2001). Coparenting. In L. Balter (Ed.), Parenthood in America: An Encyclopedia. New York: ABC-CLIO.
McHale, J., Lauretti, A., Talbot, J., & Pouquette, C. (2002). Retrospect and prospect in the psychological study of coparenting and family group process. In J. McHale & W. Grolnick (Eds.), Retrospect and prospect in the psychological study of families (pp. 127–165). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
McHale, J., Neugebauer, A., Asch, A., & Schwartz, A. (1999). Preschoolers' characterizations of multiple family relationships during family doll play. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 256–268.
McHale, J. P., & Rasmussen, J. R. (1998) Coparental and family group-level dynamics during infancy: Early family precursors of child and family functioning during preschool. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 39–58.
McHale, J., Rao, N., & Krasnow, A. (2000). Constructing family climates: Chinese mothers' reports of coparenting behaviour and preschoolers' adaptation. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 24, 111–118.
McHale, S., & Huston, T. (1984). Men and women as parents: Sex role orientations, employment, and parental roles with infants. Child Development, 55, 1349–1361.
McLoyd, V., Cauce, A., Takeuchi, D., & Wilson, L. (2001). Marital processes and parental socialization in families of color: A decade review of research. In R. Milardo (Ed.), Understanding families into the new millennium: A decade in review (pp. 289–332). Minneapolis, MN: NCFR.
Minuchin, P. (1985). Families and individual development: Provocations from the field of family therapy. Child Development, 56,289–302.
Mumola, C. (2000, August). Incarcerated parents and their children. (Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, pp. 1–12). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Newberger, C. (1987). Time, place, and parental awareness: A cognitve developmental perspective on family adaptation and parental care. In J. D. Lancaster & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Child abuse and neglect: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 233–251). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Palkovitz, R. (1996). Parenting as a generator of adult development: Conceptual issues and implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13, 571–592.
Palm, G. (1993). Involved fatherhood: A second chance. Journal of Men's Studies, 2, 139–155.
Patterson, C. (2002). Lesbian and gay parenthood. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (2nd. ed., pp. 317–338). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Patterson, C. J., Sutfin, E. L., & Fulcher, M. (2004). Division of Labor Among Lesbian and Heterosexual Parenting Couples: Correlates of Specialized Versus Shared Patterns. Journal of Adult Development, 11(3), 179–189.
Rao, N., McHale, J., & Pearson, E. (2003). Links between socialization goals and child-rearing practices in Chinese and Indian mothers. Infant and Child Development, 12, 475–492.
Roschelle, A. (1997). No more kin: Exploring race, class and gender in family networks. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sameroff, A., & Feil, L. (1985). Parental concepts of development. In I. Siegel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children (pp. 83–105). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schoppe-Sullivan, S., Mangelsdorf, S., Frosch, C., & McHale, J. (2004). Associations between coparenting and marital behavior from infancy to the preschool years. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 194–207.
Silverstein, L. (2002). Fathers and families. In J. McHale & W. Grolnick (Eds.), Retrospect and prospect in the psychological study of families (pp. 35–64). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Smith, A., Krisman, K., Strozier, A., & Marley, M. (in press). Breaking through the bars: Exploring the experiences of addicted incarcerated parents whose children are cared for by relatives. Families in Society, 16(3).
Smolack, L. (1993). Adult development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sroufe, J. (1991). Assessment of parent-adolescent relationships: Implications for adolescent development. Journal of Family Psychology, 5, 21–45.
Stack, C. (1974). All our kin. New York: Harper & Row.
Stern, D. (1995). The motherhood constellation. New York: Basic Books.
Strauss, R., & Goldberg, W. (1999). Self and possible selves during the transition to fatherhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 244–259.
Talbot, J., & McHale, J. (2003). Family-level emotional climate and its impact on the flexibility of relationship representations. In P. Erdman, T. Caffery, & J. Carlson (Eds.), Attachment and family systems: Conceptual, empirical and therapeutic relatedness (pp. 31–64). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Talbot, J., & McHale, J. (2004). Individual parental adjustment moderates the relationship between marital and coparenting quality. Journal of Adult Development, 11(3), 191–205.
Van Egeren, L. (2003). Prebirth predictors of coparenting experiences in early infancy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 278–295.
Volling, B., & Elins, J. (1998). Family relationships and children's emotional adjustment as correlates of maternal and parternal differential treatment: A replication with toddler and preschool siblings. Child Development, 69, 1640–1656.
Von Klitzing, K., Simoni, H., Amsler, F., & Buergin, D. (1999). The role of the father in early family interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 20, 222–237.
Weissman, S., & Cohen, R. (1985). The parenting alliance and adolescence. Adolescent Psychiatry, 12, 24–45.
Wu, D. (1986). Chinese childhood socialization. In M. Bond (Ed.), The psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 143–154). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
McHale, J.P., Kuersten-Hogan, R. & Rao, N. Growing Points for Coparenting Theory and Research. Journal of Adult Development 11, 221–234 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JADE.0000035629.29960.ed
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JADE.0000035629.29960.ed