Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Structure of Negative Self-Statements in Children and Adolescents: A Confirmatory Factor-Analytic Approach

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the nature and organization of a range of negative self-statements in children and adolescents, using a structural equations/confirmatory factor-analytic approach. A community sample of 978 children aged 7–16 years completed a questionnaire about the frequency with which they experienced a broad range of negative automatic thoughts. The outcome of comparative modeling provided strongest support for a model in which 4 distinct cognitive factors were all related to a single higher order factor. The 4 lower order factors related to cognitions on social threat, physical threat, personal failure, and hostility. The pattern of results was consistent across age and gender. Results were consistent with assumptions of cognitive specificity models of psychopathology, on the latent structure of automatic thoughts in children and adolescents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Ambrose, B., & Rholes, W. S. (1993). Automatic cognitions and the symptoms of depression and anxiety in children and adolescents: An examination of the content specificity hypothesis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 17, 289-308.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411-423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (1997). Amos Users' Guide: Version 3.6. Chicago: Small-Waters Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (1996). Census of Population and Housing: socio, economic Indexes for Areas. Canberra, Australia: ABS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: New American Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1996). Beyond belief: A theory of modes, personality, and psychopathology. In P. M. Salkovskis (Ed.), Frontiers of cognitive therapy (pp. 1-25). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1999). Prisoners of hate: The cognitive basis of anger, hostility, and violence. New York: HarperCollins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Brown, G., Steer, R. A., Eidelson, J. I., & Riskind, J. H. (1987). Differentiating anxiety and depression utilizing the Cognition Checklist. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 179-186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238-246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (1993). Testing structural equation models. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A., Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). Structural relationships among dimensions of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders and dimensions of negative affect, positive affect, and autonomic arousal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 179-192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural equation modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic concepts, applications and programming. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, M. A., & Rapee, R. M. (1994). The nature of feared outcome representations in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 99-111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., Albano, A. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The structure of negative emotions in a clinical sample of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 74-85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316-336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74-101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A., & Frame, C. L. (1982). Social cognitive biases and deficits in aggressive boys. Child Development, 53, 620-635.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A., Price, J. M., Bachorowski, J., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Hostile attributional biases in severely aggressive adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 385-392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Endler, N. S., Hunt, J. M., & Rosenstein, A. J. (1962). An S-R Inventory of Anxiousness. Psychological Monographs, 76, 1-33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, M. W., & Van Berkum, J. (1992). Trait anxiety, defensiveness, and the structure of worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1285-1290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairburn, C. G. (1985). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for bulimia. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy for anorexia nervosa and bulimia (pp. 160-162). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Lynskey, M. T. (1993). Prevalence and comorbidity of DSM-III-R diagnoses in a birth cohort of 15 year olds. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 1127-1134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foddy, W. (1993). Constructing questions for interviews and questionnaires. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1993). Monte Carlo evaluations of goodness-of-fit indices for structural equation models. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 40-65). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C., & Zupan, B. A. (1984). Self-schema, depression, and the processing of personal information in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37, 598-608.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on the self-system. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed., pp. 275-385). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., & Kendall, P. C. (1987). The cognitive side of anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 523-537.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E., Catanzaro, S. J., & Laurent, J. (1996). Tripartite structure of positive and negative affect, depression, and anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric impatients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 401-409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E., & Lonigan, C. J. (2000). Tripartite model of depression and anxiety in youth psychiatric inpatients: Relations with diagnostic status and future symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 372-382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jolly, J. B., & Kramer, T. A. (1994). The hierarchical arrangement of internalizing cognitions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 18, 1-14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Users Reference Guide. Chicago: SSI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaslow, N. J., Stark, K. D., Printz, B., Livingston, R., & Tsai, S. L. (1992). Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children: Development and relation to depression and anxiety. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 339-347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1990). Evaluation of the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire: Negative cognitive processes and depression among children. Psychological Assessment, 2, 73-79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, M. B., Lavoir, P., Wunder, J., Beardslee, W. R., Schwarts, C. E., & Roth, J. (1992). Chronic course of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 100-110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C. (1984). Behavioral assessment and methodology. In G. T. Wilson, C. M. Franks, K. D. Brownell, & P. C. Kendall (Eds.), Annual review of behavior therapy: Theory and practice (Vol. 9, pp. 39-94). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., & Ingram, R. E. (1989). Cognitive-behavioral perspectives: Theory and research on depression and anxiety. In P. C. Kendall & D. Watson (Eds.), Anxiety and depression: Distinctive and overlapping features. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., & MacDonald, J. P. (1993). Cognition in the psychopathology of youth and implications for treatment. In K. S. Dobson & P. C. Kendall (Eds.), Psychopathology and cognition (pp. 387-427). California: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., Stark, K. D., & Adam, T. (1990). Cognitive deficit or cognitive distortion in childhood depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 255-270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D. A., & Kashy, D. A. (1992). Analysis of the multitrait-multimethod matrix by confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 165-172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, J., Safren, S. A., Henin, A., Warman, M., Heimberg, R. G., & Kendall, P. C. (1999). Differentiating anxious and depressive self-statements in youth: Factor structure of the Negative Affect Self-Statement Questionnaire among youth referred to an anxiety disorders clinic. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 82-93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lochman, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). Social-cognitive processes of severely violent, moderately aggressive, and nonaggressive boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 366-374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, P. F., & Rapee, R. M. (1993). The representation of feared outcomes. behavior Research and Therapy, 31, 595-608.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., & Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First-and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 562-582.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, R. P., & Marsh, H. W. (1990). Choosing a multivariate model: Noncentrality and goodness-of-fit. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 247-255.

    Google Scholar 

  • McShane, J. (1991). Cognitive development: An information processing approach. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milich, R., & Dodge, K. A. (1984). Social information processing patterns in child psychiatric populations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 171-189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prins, P. J. M. (1986). Children's self-speech and self-regulation during a fear-provoking behavioral test. behavior Research and Therapy, 24, 181-191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahim, M. A., & Magner, N. R. (1995). Confirmatory factor analysis of the styles of handling interpersonal conflict: First order factor model and its invariance across groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 122-123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapee, R. M. (1991). Generalized anxiety disorder: A review of clinical features and theoretical concepts. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 419-440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapee, R. M. (1993). Psychological factors in panic disorder. Advances in behavior Research and Therapy, 15, 85-102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ronan, K. R., Kendall, P. C., & Rowe, M. (1994). Negative affectivity in children: Development and validation of a self-statement questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 18, 509-528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ronan, K. R., Rowe, P., & Kendall, P. C. (1988, November). Children's Anxious Self-Statement Questionnaire (CASSQ): Development and validation. Paper presented at the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy Convention, New York.

  • Rutter, M. (1987). The role of cognition in child development and disorder. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 60, 77-98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1989). Pathways from childhood to adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 23-51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schniering, C. S., Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2000). Issues in the diagnosis and assessment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 453-478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schniering, C. S., & Rapee, R. M. (2002). Development and validation of a measure of children's automatic thoughts: The Children's Automatic Thoughts Scale. behavior Research and Therapy, 40, 1091-1109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (1996). A beginners' guide to structural equation modeling. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D. R. (1996). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence (4th ed.). California: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H. (1997). Structure of anxiety symptoms among children: A confirmatory factor-analytic approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 280-297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H., Donovan, C., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. (1999). Social skills, social outcomes, and cognitive features of childhood social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 211-221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark, K. D., Best, L. R., & Adam, T. (1990). Development and psychometric evaluation of a depressogenic thoughts questionnaire for children. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Stattin, H., Magnusson, D., Olah, A., Kassin, H., & Reddy, N. Y. (1991). Perception of threatening consequences of anxiety-provoking situations. Anxiety Research, 4, 141-166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Streiner, D. L., & Norman, G. R. (1995). Health measurement scales: A practical guide to their development and use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treadwell, K. R. H., & Kendall, P. C. (1996). Self-talk in youth with anxiety disorders: States of mind, content specificity, and treatment outcome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 941-950.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, M. W. (1993). Development and cognition in childhood anxiety: The example of worry. In T. H. Ollendick and J. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology, (Vol. 15, pp. 1-39). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasey, M. W., Crnic, K. A., & Carter, W. G. (1994). Worry in childhood: A developmental perspective. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 18, 529-549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C. (1995). A review of community studies. In F. C. Verhulst & J. M. Koot (Eds.), The Epidemiology of child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 146-177). Cambridge, MA: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C., Van der Ende, J., Ferdinand, R. F., & Kasius, M. C. (1997). The prevalence of DSM-III-R diagnoses in a national sample of Dutch adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 329-336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1992). Affects separable and inseparable: On the hierarchical arrangement of negative affects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 489-505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, B., Suesser, K., & Catron, T. (1998). Common and specific features of childhood psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 118-127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zatz, S., & Chassin, L. (1983). Cognitions of test-anxious children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 526-534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zupan, B., Hammen, C., & Jaenicke, C. (1987). The effects of current mood and prior depressive history on self-schematic processing in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 43, 149-158.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Carolyn A. Schniering & Ronald M. Rapee

Authors
  1. Carolyn A. Schniering
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ronald M. Rapee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carolyn A. Schniering.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Schniering, C.A., Rapee, R.M. The Structure of Negative Self-Statements in Children and Adolescents: A Confirmatory Factor-Analytic Approach. J Abnorm Child Psychol 32, 95–109 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000007583.90038.7a

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000007583.90038.7a

Search

Navigation