Abstract
Infancy is a sensitive period during which parenting is crucial to healthy development, and inadequate parenting may have serious and longlasting effects for children's health and development. While many domains of parenting have been widely studied, the specific daily practices involved in caring for infants have not been well researched, particularly outside the context of clinical settings for parents with recognized problems in parenting. This manuscript reviews and discusses the essential aspects of parenting infants, taking into account the essential developmental tasks of infants from birth to age one and using a comprehensive framework developed by Bradley and Caldwell (1995). Literature and research from pediatrics, nursing, psychology, human ecology, child development, and child and family studies are highlighted to illustrate what is known about the parenting of infants. Explication and exploration of the full range of parenting tasks with infants may serve as a foundation for social work research in a number of areas, including specific areas of neglectful parenting with infants and interventions for a range of parenting problems.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Infant Positional and SIDS. (1992). Positioning and SIDS. Pediatrics, 89, 1120–1126.
American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Children and Television. Children, adolescents, and television. News and Comment, 35, 8.
detaillb.cfm?article_ID?ZZZ6DGWRKHC&sub_cat?24
Barrett, D. E., Radke-Yarrow, M. & Klein, R. E. (1982). Chronic malnutrition and child behavior: Effects of early caloric supplementation on social and emotional functioning at school age. Developmental Psychology, 18, 541–556.
Baumrind, D. (1996). The discipline controversy revisited. Family Relations, 45, 405–414.
Beers, M.H. & Berkow, R. (1999). The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapy. 17th ed.Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.
Belsky, J. (1999). Interactional and contextual determinants of attachment security. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 249–264). New York: Guilford Press.
Berger, E. (1999). Raising children with character: Parents, trust, and the development of personal integrity. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, Inc.
Biringen, Z. & Robinson, J. (1991). Emotional availability in mother-child interactions: A reconceptualization for research. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 258–271.
Blackwell, P. L. (2000). The influence of touch on child development: Implications for intervention. Infants and Young Children, 13, 25–39.
Borkowski, M.M., Hunter, K.E. & Johnson, C.M. (2001). White noise and scheduled bedtime routines to reduce infant and childhood sleep disturbances. Behavior Therapist, 24, 29–47.
Bornstein, M. H. (1995). Parenting infants. In Marc H. Bornstein, Ed., Handbook of parenting. Volume I. Children and parenting (pp. 3–39). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bornstein, M. & Tamis-LeMonda C. (1990). Activities and interactions of mothers and their firstborn infants in the first six months of live: Covariation, stability, continuity, correspondence, and prediction. Child Development 61 (4), 1206–1217.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss, Vol. I: Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.
Bradley, R. H. (1995). Environment and parenting. In M.H. Bornstein, Ed., Handbook of parenting. Volume I. Children and parenting (pp. 235–261). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Bradley, R. H. (1998). In defense of parental investment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 791–795.
Bradley, R. H. & Caldwell, B. M. (1995). Caregiving and the regulation of child growth and development: Describing proximal aspects of caregiving systems. Developmental Review, 15, 38–85.
Brazelton, T.B. & Greenspan, S.I. (2000). The irreducible needs of children. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
Brenner, R. A., Overpeck, M. D., Trumble, A. C., DerSimonian, R., & Berendes, H. (1999). Deaths attributable to injuries in infants, United States, 1983–1991. Pediatrics, 103, 968–974.
Bretherton, I. (1990). Open communication and internal working models: Their role in the development of attachment relationships. In R.A. Thompson (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 36. Socioemotional development (pp. 59–113). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Bretherton, I. (1996). Internal working models of attachment relationships as related to resilient coping. In G.G. Noam & K.W. Fischer (Eds.), Development and vulnerability in close relationships (pp. 3–27). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. (1999). Internal working models of attachment relationships: A construct revisited. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 89–111). New York: Guilford.
Brilliant, L. C. (2000). Information from your family doctor: Diaper rash. American Family Physician, January 15.
Burklow, K.A., McGrath, A.M. & Kaul, A. (2002). Management and prevention of feeding problems in young children with prematurity and very low birth weight. Infants and Young Children, 14, 19–30.
Caldera, Y.M. & Shine, S. (1999). Infant child care and compliance in the second year: A short-term longitudinal analysis of contextual factors. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 28, 193–215.
Casey, P. H. & Whitt, J. K. (1980). Effect of the pediatrician on the mother-infant relationship. Pediatrics, 65, 815–820.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2000). Online. Available: http://www.cdc. gov/nceh/lead/guide/1997/docs/factlead.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001). Online. What Every Parent Should Know About Lead Poisoning in Children. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/ faq/cdc97a.htm
Chavkin, W., Allen, M.H. & Oberman, M. (1991). Drug abuse and pregnancy: Some questions on public policy, clinical management, and maternal and fetal rights. Birth, 18, 107–112.
Christophersen, E. R. (1986). Anticipatory guidance on discipline. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 33, 789–798.
Christophersen, E. R. & Hall, C. L. (1978). Eating patterns and associated problems encountered in normal children. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 3, 1–16.
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S., & Bush, M. (1988). Developmental psychopathology and incompetence in childhood. Suggestions for intervention. In Benjamin B. Lahey & Alan E. Kazdin, Eds, Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (1–71), 11. New York: Plenum.
Cox, M. (1998). The heart of a family: Searching America for new traditions that fulfill us. New York: Random House.
Darling, N. & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 487–496.
Daro, D. (1988). Intervening with new parents: An effective way to prevent child abuse. Chicago: National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse.
DeGangi, G. A., DiPietro, J. A., Greenspan, S. I. & Porges, S. W. (1991). Psychophysiological characteristics of the regulatory disordered infant. Infant Behavior and Development, 14, 37–50.
Dennison, B.A. (1996). Fruit juice consumption by infants and children: A review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 15 (5, Supp.), 4S–11S.
Dietrich, K.N., Starr, R.H. & Weisfeld, G.E. (1983). Infant maltreatment: Caretakerinfant interaction and developmental consequences at different levels of parenting failure. Pediatrics, 72, 532–540.
Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptive processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 3–25.
Doucette, R.E. & Dwyer, J.T. (2000). Is fruit juice a “no-no” in children's diets? Nutrition Reviews, 58, 180–183.
Drotar, D. (1991). The family context of Nonorganic Failure to Thrive. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 23–34.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989). Human ethology. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Eisenberg, A., Murkoff, H.E. & Eisenberg, S. (1996). What to expect the first year. New York: Workman Publishing Company.
Engle, P.L., Menon, P. & Haddad, L. (1999). Care and nutrition: Concepts and measurement. World Development, 27, 1309–1337.
Erikson, E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton & Co.
Fein, S.B. & Falci, C.D. (1999). Infant formula preparation, handling, and related practices in the United States. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 99, 1234–1240.
Feldman, M. A. (1998). Preventing child neglect: Child-care training for parents with intellectual disabilities. Infants and Young Children, 11(2), 1–11.
Feldman, S. S. & Wentzel, K. R. (1990). Relations among family interaction patterns, classroom self-restraint, and academic achievement in preadolescent boys. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 813–819.
Garbarino, J. (1992). Children and families in the social environment (2nd ed.). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Garbarino, J. (1988). Preventing childhood injury: Developmental and mental health issues. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58, 25–45.
Garcia Coll, C. & Meyer, E. C. (1993). The sociocultural context of infant development. In Zeanah, Charles H., Ed. Handbook of Infant Mental Health (pp. 56–69). New York: Guilford.
Gielen, A.C., Wilson, M.E.H., Faden, R.R., Wassow, L. & Harvilchuck, J.D. (1995). Inhome injury prevention practices for infants and toddlers: The role of parental beliefs, barriers, and housing quality. Health Education Quarterly, 22, 85–95.
Glinsmann, W. H., Bartholmey, S. J. & Coletta, F. (1996). Dietary guidelines for infants: A timely reminder. Nutrition Reviews, February.
Graham, M.A., White, B.A., Clarke, C.C. & Adams, S. (2001). Infusing infant mental health practices into front-line caregiving. Infants and Young Children, 14, 14–23.
Gralinski, J. H. & Kopp, C. B. (1993). Everyday rules for behavior: Mothers' requests to young children. Developmental Psychology, 29, 573–584.
Grossmann, K.E., Grossmann, K. & Zimmermann, P. (1999). A wider view of attachment and exploration: Stability and change during the years of immaturity. In J. Cassidy & P.R. Shaver. Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 760–786). New York: The Guilford Press.
Grossman, D.C. & Rivara, F.P. (1992). Injury control in childhood. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 39, 471–485.
Gunnar, M.R. & Barr, R.G. (1998). Stress, early brain development, and behavior. Infants and Young Children, 11, 1–14.
Haaga, J. (1986). Children's seatbelt usage: Evidence from the National Health Interview Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 76, 1425–1427.
Hagekull, B., Bohlin, G., & Rydell, A. (1997). Maternal sensitivity, infant temperament, and the development of early feeding problems. Infant Mental Health Journal, 18, 92–106.
Heath, S.B. (1989). Oral and literate traditions among black Americans living in poerty. American Psychologist, 44, 367–373.
Heft, H. (1979). Background and focal environmental conditions of the home and attention to young children. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9, 47–69.
Hendricks K.M. & Walker W.A. (1990). Manual of pediatric nutrition, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: BC Decker.
Henry, B., Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T.E. & Silva, P.A. (1996). Temperamental and familial predictors of violent and nonviolent criminal convictions: age 3 to age 18. Developmental Psychology 32, 614–623.
Heptinstall, E. Puckering, C., Skuse, D., Start, K., Zur, Szpiro & Dowdney, L. (1987). Nutrition and mealtime behavior in families of growth-retarded children. Human Nutrition Applied Nutrition, 41A, 390–402.
Herrenkohl, E.C., Herrenkohl, R.C., Rupert, L.J., Egolf, B.P. & Lutz, J.G. (1995). Risk factors for behavioral dysfunction: The relative impact of maltreatment, SES, physical health problems, cognitive ability, and quality of parent-child interaction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 191–203.
Hertzler, A. A. (1983). Children's food patterns-A review: II. Family and group behavior. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 83, 555–560.
Hertzler, A. A. & Vaughan, C.E. (1979). The relationship of family structure and interaction to nutrition. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 74, 23–27.
Hodapp, R.M., Goldfield, E.C. & Boyatzis, C.J. (1984). The use and effectiveness of maternal scaffolding in mother-infant games. Child Development, 55, 772–781.
Hoff-Ginsberg, E. & Tardif, T. (1995). Socioeconomic status and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, Vol. 2, Biology and Ecology of Parenting(pp. 161–188) Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Honig, A.S. (1995). Choosing child care for young children. In M.H. Bornstein, Ed., Handbook of parenting, Vol. 4, Applied and Practical Parenting(pp. 411–435). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Honig, A. S. (1998). The sounds of language. Scholastic Early Childhood Today, August/ September.
Horowitz, F.D. (1987). Exploring developmental theories: Toward a structural/behavioral model of development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Howard, B. J. (1991). Discipline in early childhood. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 38, 1351–1369.
Keltner, B. (1990). Family characteristics of preschool social competence among Black children in a Head Start program. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 21, 95–108.
Lally, J. R., Griffin, A., Fenichel, E., Segal, M., Szanton, E. & Weissbourd, B. (1997). Development in the first three years of life. In Sue Bredekamp & Carol Copple, Editors, Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs, revised edition (pp. 55–94). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Leach, P. (1990). Your baby & child. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Linscheid, T. R. & Rasnake, L. K. (1985). Behavioral approaches to the treatment of Failure to Thrive. In D. Drotar, Ed. New Directions in Failure to Thrive: Implications for Research and Practice (pp. 279–294). New York: Plenum.
Lozoff, B., Klein, N.K., Nelson, E.C., et al. (1998). Behavior of infants with iron-deficiency anemia. Child Development, 69, 24–36.
Lubeck, R.C. & Chandler, L.K. (1990). Organizing the home caregiving environment for infants. Education and Treatment of Children, 13, 347–363.
Lund, C.H., Osborne, J.W., Kuller, J., Lane, A.T., Lott, J.W. & Raines, D.A. (2001). Neonatal skin care: Clinical outcomes of the AWHONN/NANN evidence-based clinical practice guideline. JOGNN, 30, 41–51.
Maccoby, E.E. (1980). Social development: Psychological growth and the parent-child relationship. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. In I. Bretherton and E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1–2), Serial No. 209), 66–104.
Malloy, M. & Rhoads, G. (1988). Syrup of Ipecac: The case for distribution from physicians' office. American Journal of Diseases in Children, 142, 640–642.
McCarroll, L.D. (1999). Family rituals: Promoting the ethnic identity of preschoolers. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
McLennan, J.D. & Kotelchuck, M. (2000). Parental prevention practices for young children in the context of maternal depression. Pediatrics 105, 1090–1095.
Miller, S. A. (1988). Parents' beliefs about children's cognitive development. Child Development, 59, 259–285.
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development. J. P. Shonkoff & D.A. Phillips (Eds.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (1998). Early child care and self-control, compliance, and problem behavior at twenty-four and thirty-six months. Child Development, 69(4), 1145–1170.
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2000). The relation of child care to cognitive and language development. Child Development, 71(4), 960–980.
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2001). Child care and children's peer interaction at 24 and 36 months: The NICHD study of early child care. Child Development, 72(5), 1478–1500.
O'Campo, P., Rao, R.P., Gielen, A.C., Royalty, W. & Wilson, M. (2000). Injury-producing events among children in low-income communities: The role of community characteristics. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 77, 34–49.
Patterson, G.R., Reid, J.B. & Dishion, T.J. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Perrin, J. M. & Kagan, J. (1999). The role of parents in children's psychological development. Pediatrics, 104(suppl.), 164–167.
Peterson, L., Ewigman, B. & Kivlahan, C. (1993). Judgments regarding appropriate child supervision to prevent injury: The role of environmental risk and child age. Child Development, 64, 934–950.
Phillips, D. & Adams, G. (2001). Child care and our youngest children. The Future of Children, 11, 35–51.
Pierce, D. (2000). Maternal management of the home as a developmental play space for infants and toddlers. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54, 290–299.
Polansky, N.A., Williams, D.P. & Buttenwieser, E.W. (1981). Damaged parents. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rose, S. (1999). Towards the development of an internalized conscience: Theoretical perspectives on socialization. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2, 15–28.
Russell, A. & Russell, G. (1989). Warmth in mother-child and father-child relationships in middle childhood. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7, 219–235.
Safety precautions with infants and toddlers. (2000). Scholastic Early Childhood Today, 15, 39.
Sand, P. O. & Sand, R. W. (1995). Preventive health care for infants birth to two years of age. Primary Care, 22, 601–618.
Sander, L.W., Stechler, G., Burns, P. & Julia, H. (1970). Early mother-infant interactions and 24-hour patterns of activity and sleep. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 9, 103–123.
Satter, E. (1986). The feeding relationship. Perspectives in Practice, 86, 352–356.
Schmitt, B.D. (1994). Dealing with diaper rash. Contemporary Pediatrics, 11, 79–80.
Schuck, L.A. & Bucy, J.E. (1997). Family rituals: Implications for early intervention. Topics in Childhood Special Education, 17, 477–493.
Shapiro, E. S. & Cole, C. L. (1999). Self-monitoring in assessing children's problems. Psychological Assessment 11 (4), 448–457.
Shields, A.M., Cicchetti, D. & Ryan, R.M. (1994). The development of emotional and behavioral self-regulation and social competence among maltreated school-aged children. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 57–75.
Siegel, D.J. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobiology of the developing mind: Attachment relationships, “mindsight,” and neural integration. Infant Mental Health Journal 22, 67–94.
Skinner, J.D., Carruth, B.R., Houck, K., Moran, J., Coletta, F., Cotter, R., Ott, D., & McLeod, M. (1997). Transitions in infant feeding during the first year of life. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 16, 209–215.
Skinner, J.D., Carruth, B.R., Houck, K., Moran, J., Reed, A., Coletta, F. & Ott, D. (1998). Mealtime communication patterns of infants from 2 to 24 months of age. Journal of Nutrition Education, 30, 8–16.
Spock, B. & Rothenberg, M.B. (1992). Dr. Spock's baby and child care. New York: Pocket Books.
Strathearn, L., Gray, H.P., O'Callaghan, J.M. & Wood, O.D. (2001). Childhood neglect and cognitive development in extremely low birth weight infants: A prospective study. Pediatrics, 108, 142–151.
Tamis-LeMonda, C., Bornstein, M. & Baumwell, L. (2001). Maternal responsiveness and children's achievement of language milestones. Child Development 72 (3), 748–67.
Tamis-LeMonda, C.; Chen L. & Bornstein, M. (1998). Mothers' knowledge about children's play and language development: Short-term stability and interrelations. Developmental Psychology, 34, 115–124.
Thompson, R. (2001). Development in the first years of life. The Future of Children, 11, 21–33.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1995). Employment status of women by marital status and presence and age of children: 1960 to 1994 (Bulletin 2340). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Valenzuela, M. (1997). Maternal sensitivity in a developing society: The context of urban poverty and infant chronic undernutrition. Developmental Psychology, 33, 845–855.
Wachs, T.D. (1998), quoted by Rusch, L.. Give peace a chance. Parenting, 149.
Wachs, T. D. & Chan, A. (1986). Specificity of environmental action, as seen in environmental correlates of infants' communication performance. Child Development, 57, 1464–1474.
Walker, N. (1999). Parenting in the '90s: Day-care dilemma. Ebony, 54, 35–38.
Wallace, I. F. Roberts, J. E. & Lodder, D. E. (1998). Interactions of African American infants and their mothers: Relations with development at 1 year of age. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 900–912.
Watson-Perczel, M., Lutzker, J. R., Greene, B. F. & McGimpsey, B. J. (1988). Assessment and modification of home cleanliness among families adjudicated for child neglect. Behavior Modification, 12, 57–81.
Welfare Reform: Should housing have a role? (2000). Journal of Housing and Community Development, January/February, 15–24.
Werner, E.E. & Smith, R.S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: Cambridge University Press.
White, B., Gunnar, M., Larson, M., Donzella, B., & Barr, R. (2000). Behavioral and physiological responsivity, sleep, and patterns of daily cortisol production in infants with and without colic. Child Development 71, 862–77.
Winkelstein, M. L. (1984). Overfeeding in infancy: The early introduction of solid foods. Pediatric Nursing, 10, 205–208, 236.
Winnicott, D.W. (1965a). The family and individual development.London: Tavistock Publications.
Winnicott, D.W. (1965b). The maturational processes and the facilitating environment: Studies in the theory of emotional development. New York: International Universities Press.
Wolfe, D.A. (1999). Child abuse: Implications for child development and psychopathology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Wolin, S.J. & Bennett, L.A. (1984). Family rituals. Family Process, 23, 401–420.
Wong, D. L. (1997). Pediatric nursing. 5th edition. St. Louis: Mosby.
Yoos, L. H., Kitzman, H., Olds, L. D., Overacker, I. (1995). Child rearing beliefs in the African-american community: Implications for culturally competent pediatric care. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 10(6), 343–353.
Young, H. V. (1970). Family and childhood in a southern negro community. American Anthropologist, 72, 269–288.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Combs-Orme, T., Wilson, E.E., Cain, D.S. et al. Context-Based Parenting in Infancy: Background and Conceptual Issues. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 20, 437–472 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CASW.0000003138.32550.a2
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CASW.0000003138.32550.a2