Abstract
The hypothesis that children's appraisals mediate the relationship between interparental violence and adjustment was tested in a sample of 106 maritally violent families. Multiple regressions showed that interparental violence was a predictor of total problems, externalizing, internalizing, and anxiety for boys, and total problems and internalizing for girls. Appraisals of conflict properties mediated the relationship between violence and boys' total problems and externalizing, and girls' total problems and internalizing. Interparental violence was related to appraisals in gender-differentiated ways, particularly to increased threat for boys, and self-blame for girls. Further, threat mediated the impact of violence on boys' anxiety, while self-blame mediated the relationship between violence and girls' internalizing.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist, University Associates, Burlington, VT.
Augustyn, M., Parker, S., Groves, B. M., and Zuckerman, B. (1995). Children who witness violence. Contemp. Ped. 12: 35-57.
Baron, R. M., and Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Personal. Social Psychol. 51: 1173-1182.
Basic Behavioral Science Task Force of the National Advisory Mental Health Council. (1996a). Basic behavioral science research for mental health: Vulnerability and resilience. Am. Psychologist 51: 22-28.
Basic Behavioral Science Task Force of the National Advisory Mental Health Council. (1996b). Basic behavioral science research for mental health: Family processes and social networks. Am. Psychologist 51: 622-630.
B.C. Institute on Family Violence (1992). Current and future effects on children witnessing parental violence: An overview and annotated bibliography. Series on Interpersonal Violence, Report No. 1.
Block, J. H. (1983). Differential premises arising from differential socialization of the sexes: Some conjectures. Child Devel. 54: 1335-1354.
Carlson, B. E. (1984). Children's observations of interparental violence. In Roberts, A. R. (ed.), Battered Women and Their Families, Springer, New York, pp. 147-167.
Christopoulos, C., Cohn, D. A., Shaw, D. S., Joyce, S., Sullivan-Hanson, J., Kraft, S. P., and Emery, R. E. (1987). Children of abused women: I. Adjustment at time of shelter residence. J. Marr. Fam. 49: 611-619.
Cohn, L. D. (1991). Sex differences in the course of personality development: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bull. 109: 252-266.
Crockenberg, S., and Covey, S. L. (1991). Marital conflict and externalizing behavior in children. In Cicchetti, D., and Toth, S. L. (eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology. Vol 3: Models and Integrations. University of Rochester Press, Rochester, pp. 235-260.
Cummings, E. M., Ballard, M., El-Sheikh, M. and Lake, M. (1991). Resolution and child's responses to interadult anger. Devel. Psychol. 27: 462-470.
Cummings, E. M., and Cummings, J. S. (1988). A process-oriented approach to children's coping with adults' angry behavior. Devel. Rev. 8: 296-321.
Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., and Simpson, K. S. (1994). Marital conflict, gender, and children's appraisals and coping efficacy as mediators of child adjustment. J. Fam. Psychol. 8: 141-149.
Cummings, E. M., and El-Sheikh, M. (1991). Children's coping with angry environments: A process-oriented approach. In Cummings, E. M., Greene, A. L., and Karraker, K. H. (eds.), Life-Span Developmental Psychology: Perspectives on Stress and Coping, Erlbaum, Hilldale, NJ, pp. 131-150.
Cummings, E. M., Iannotti, R. J., and Zahn-Waxler, C. (1985). The influence of conflict between adults on emotions and aggression of young children. Devel. Psychol. 21: 495-507.
Cummings, E. M., Vogel, D., Cummings, J., and El-Sheikh, M. (1989). Children's responses to different forms of anger between adults. Child Devel. 60: 1392-1404.
Davies, P. T., and Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bull. 116: 387-411.
Depner, C. E., Leino, E. V., and Chun, A. (1992). Interparental conflict and child adjustment: A decade review and meta-analysis. Fam. Concil. Courts Rev. 30: 323-341.
Emery, R. E. (1988). Marriage, Divorce, and Children's Adjustment. Sage, Newbury Park.
Fantuzzo, J. W., DePaola, L. M., Lambert, L., Martino, T., Anderson, G., and Sutton, S. (1991). Effects of interparental violence on the psychological adjustment and competencies of young children. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 59: 258-265.
Fantuzzo, J. W., and Lindquist, C. U. (1989). The effects of observing conjugal violence on children: A review and analysis of research methodology. J. Fam. Viol. 4: 77-94.
Gjerde, P. F., Block, J., and Block, J. H. (1988). Depressive symptoms and personality during late adolescence: Gender differences in the externalization-internalization of symptom expression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 97: 475-486.
Grych, J. H., and Fincham, F. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bull. 108: 267-290.
Grych, J. H., and Fincham, F. (1993). Children's appraisals of interparental conflict: Initial investigations of the cognitive-contextual framework. Child Devel. 64: 215-230.
Grych, J. H., Seid, M., and Fincham, F. (1992). Assessing marital conflict from the child's perspective: The Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale. Child Devel. 63: 558-572.
Holden, G. W., and Ritchie, K. L. (1991). Linking extreme marital discord, childrearing, and child behavior problems: Evidence from battered women. Child Devel. 62: 311-327.
Hughes, H. M., Parkinson, D., and Vargo, M. (1989). Witnessing spouse abuse and experiencing physical abuse: A “double whammy”? J. Fam. Viol. 4: 197-209.
Jaffe, P. G., Suderman, M. and Reitzel, D. (1992). Child witnesses of marital violence. In Ammerman, R. T., and Hersen, M. (eds.), Assessment of Family Violence: A Clinical and Legal Sourcebook, Wiley, New York, pp. 313-331.
Jaffe, P. G., Wolfe, D. A., and Wilson, S. K. (1990). Children of Battered Women, Sage, Newbury Park.
Jaffe, P. G., Wolfe, D., Wilson, S. K., and Zak, L. (1986). Family violence and child adjustment: A comparative analyses of girls' and boys' behavioral symptoms. Am. J. Psychiatry, 143: 74-76.
Jenkins, J. M., Smith, M. A., and Graham, P. J. (1989). Coping with parental quarrels. J. Am. Acad. Child Adol. Psychiatry, 28: 182-189.
Johnston, J. R., Gonzalez, R, and Campbell, L. E. (1987). Ongoing post-divorce conflict and child disturbance. J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 15: 493-509.
Jouriles, E. N., and LeCompte, S. H. (1991). Husbands' aggression toward wives and mothers' and fathers' aggression toward children: Moderating effects of child gender. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 59: 190-192.
Jouriles, E. N., Murphy, C. M., and O'Leary, K. D. (1989). Interspousal aggression, marital discord, and child problems. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 57: 453-455.
Jouriles, E. N., and Norwood, W. D. (1995). Physical aggression toward boys and girls in families characterized by the battering of women. J. Fam. Psychol. 9: 69-78.
Katz, L. F., and Gottman, J. M. (1993). Patterns of marital conflict predict children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Devel. Psychol. 29: 940-950.
Katz, L. F., and Gottman, J. M. (1995). Vagal tone protects children from marital conflict. Devel. Psychopathol. 7: 83-92.
Kavanagh, K., and Hops, H. (1994). Good girls? Bad boys? Gender and development as contexts for diagnosis and treatment. In Ollendick, T. H., and Prinz, R. J. (eds.), Advan. Clin. Child Psychol. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 45-79.
Kerig, P. K. (1996). Assessing the links between marital conflict and child development: The Conflicts and Problem-Solving Scales. J. Fam. Psychol. 10: 454-473.
Kerig, P. K. (1997, April). Gender and children's coping efforts as moderators of the effects of interparental conflict on adjustment. In Lindahl, K. M., and Katz, L. F. (Chairs), Marital conflict and children's adjustment: Risk and protective mechanisms in family subsystems, Symposium presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.
Kerig, P. K. (1998). Moderators and mediators of the effects of interparental conflict on child adjustment. J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 26: 199-212.
Kerig, P. K., Cowan, P. A., and Cowan, C. P. (1993). Marital quality and gender differences in parent-child interaction. Devel. Psychol. 29: 931-939.
Kerig, P. K., Fedorowicz, A. E., Brown, C. A., Patenaude, R. L., and Warren, M. (in press). When warriors are worriers: Gender and children's strategies for coping with interparental violence. J. Emotional Abuse, 1.
Locke, H., and Wallace, K. (1959). Short marital adjustment and prediction tests: Their reliability and validity. Marr. Fam. Liv. 21: 251-255.
Margolin, G. (1995, January). The effects of domestic violence on children. Paper presented at the Conference on Violence Against Children in the Family and Community, Los Angeles, CA.
McCloskey, L. A., Figueredo, A. J., and Koss, M. P. (1995). The effects of systemic family violence on children's mental health. Child Devel. 66: 1239-1261.
Moore, T., and Pepler, D. (1996, March). Children exposed to family violence: Gender differences. Paper presented at the First National Conference on Children Exposed to Violence, Austin, Texas.
Moore, T. E., Pepler, D., Mae, R., and Kates, M. (1989). Effects of family violence on children: New directions for research and intervention. In Pressman, B., Camerson, G., and Rothery, M. (eds.), Intervening with Assaulted Women: Current Theory, Research, and Practice, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 75-91.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., and Seligman, M. E. P. (1991). Sex differences in depression and explanatory style in children. J. Youth Adol. 20: 233-245.
O'Keefe, M. (1994). Linking marital violence, mother-child/father-child aggression, and child behavior problems. J. Fam. Viol. 9: 63-78.
Osofsky, J. D. (1995). Children who witness domestic violence: The invisible victims. Social Policy Rep. Soc. Res. Child Devel. 9.
Porter, B., and O'Leary, R. E. (1980). Marital discord and childhood behavior problems. J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 8: 287-295.
Reid, W., and Crisafulli, A. (1990). Marital discord and child behavior problems: A meta-analysis. J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 18: 105-117.
Reynolds, C., and Richmond, B. (1978). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children's manifest anxiety. J. Abnormal Child Psychol. 6: 271-280.
Rossman, B. B. R., and Rosenberg, M. (1992). Family stress and functioning in children: The moderating effects of children's beliefs about their control over parental conflict. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 33: 699-715.
Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In Rolf, J., Masten, A. S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K. H., and Weintraub, S. (eds.), Risk and Protective Factors in the Development of Psychopathology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 181-214.
Spanier, G. B. (1976). Measuring dyadic adjustment: New scales for assessing the quality of marriage. J. Marr. Fam. 38: 15-28.
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. J. Marr. Fam. 41: 75-85.
Sternberg, K. J., Lamb, M. E., Greenbaum, C., Cicchetti, D., et al. (1993). Effects of domestic violence on children's behavior problems and depression. Devel. Psychol. 29: 44-52.
Tomkins, A. J., Mohamed, S., Steinman, M., Macolini, R. M., Kenning, M. K., and Afrank, J. (1994). The plight of children who witness women battering: Psychological knowledge and policy implications. Law Psychol. Rev. 18: 137-187.
Wolfe, D. A., and Jaffe, P. (1991). Child abuse and family violence as determinants of child psychopathology. Canad. J. Behav. Sci. 23: 282-299.
Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., and Zak, L. (1985). Children of battered women: The relation of child behavior to family violence and maternal stress. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 53: 657-665.
Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., and Zak, L. (1988). A multivariate investigation of children's adjustment to family violence. In Hotaling, G. T., Finkelhor, D., Kirkpatrick, J. T., and Straus, M. A. (eds.), Family Abuse and Its Consequences, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 228-241.
Zahn-Waxler, C. (1993). Warriors and worriers: Gender and psychopathology. Devel. Psychopathol. 5: 79-90.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kerig, P.K. Gender and Appraisals as Mediators of Adjustment in Children Exposed to Interparental Violence. Journal of Family Violence 13, 345–363 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022871102437
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022871102437