Abstract
The purpose of this study was to document deficits in the perception of nonverbal emotion cues that have been implicated as a cause of social maladjustment in children with nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD). Thirty-three children between the ages of 9 and 14 identified as having NLD, verbal learning disabilities (VLD), or as nonlearning disabled psychiatric controls were administered the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy and Personality Inventory for Children – Revised (PIC-R) to measure social perception and social adjustment, respectively. The NLD group was significantly less accurate than were the VLD and control groups in interpreting adult facial expressions and gestures, and significantly less accurate than was control group in interpreting subtle (i.e., low intensity) adult facial expressions. There was a nonsignificant trend toward more social skill deficits demonstrated on the PIC-R by the NLD group than the other study groups. Children with NLD were twice as likely as children with VLD to be diagnosed with an internalizing disorder. There were also consistent and compelling trends in the predicted direction with the NLD group showing the most impairment on measures of nonverbal perception.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baum, K. M., and Nowicki, S. (1998). Perception of emotion: Measuring decoding accuracy of adult prosodic cues varying in intensity. J. Nonverb. Behav. 22: 89–107.
Casey, J. E., Rourke, B. P., and Picard, E. M. (1991). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Age differences in neuropsychological, academic, and socioemotional functioning. Dev. Psychopathol. 3: 329–345.
Cooley, E. L., and Nowicki, S., Jr. (1989). Discrimination of facial expressions of emotion by depressed subjects. Genet. Soc. Gen. Psychol. Monogr. 115: 449–465.
Davis, J. T., Parr, G., and Lan, W. (1997). Differences between learning disability subtypes classified using the Revised Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery. J. Learn. Disabil. 30: 346–352.
Fletcher, J. M. (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities and suicide: Classification leads to prevention. J. Learn. Disabil. 22: 176–179.
Hall, C. W., Peterson, A. D., Webster, R. E., Bolen, L. M., and Brown, M. B. (1999). Perception of nonverbal social cues by regular education, ADHD, and ADHD/LD students. Psychol. Sch. 36: 505–514.
Hess, U., Blairy, S., and Kleck, R. E. (1997). The intensity of emotional facial expressions and decoding accuracy. J. Nonverb. Behav. 21: 241–257.
Koning, C., and Magill-Evans, J. (2001). Validation of the Child and Adolescent Social Perception measure. Occup. Ther. J. Res. 21: 49–67.
Lachar, D. (1982). Personality Inventory for Children (PIC) Revised Format Manual Supplement, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles, CA.
Lachar, D., Gdowski, C., and Snyder, D. K. (1982). Broad-band dimensions of psychopathology: Factor scales for the Personality Inventory for Children. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 50: 634–642.
Lachar, D., Gdowski, C., and Snyder, D. K. (1984). External validation of the Personality Inventory for Children profile and factor scales: Parent, teacher, and clinical ratings. J. Consul. Clin. Psychol. 52: 155–164.
Lancelot, C., and Nowicki, S., Jr. (1997). The association between receptive nonverbal processing abilities and internalizing/externalizing problems in girls and boys. J. Genet. Psychol. 158: 297–302.
Loveland, K. A., Fletcher, J. M., and Bailey, V. (1990). Nonverbal communication of events in learning disability subtypes. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 12: 433–447.
Myklebust, H. R. (1975). Nonverbal learning disability: Assessment and intervention. In Myklebust, H. R. (ed.), Progress in Learning Disabilities, Vol. 3, Grune and Stratton, New York, pp. 85–122.
Nowicki, S., Jr., and Carton, J. (1993). The measurement of emotional intensity from facial expressions. J. Soc. Psychol. 133: 749–750.
Nowicki, S., Jr., and Carton, E. (1997). The relation of nonverbal processing ability of faces and voices and children's feelings of depression and competence. J. Genet. Psychol. 158: 357–363.
Nowicki, S., Jr., and Duke, M. P. (1992). The association of children's nonverbal decoding abilities with their popularity, locus of control, and academic achievement. J. Gene. Psychol. 153: 385–393.
Nowicki, S., Jr., and Duke, M. P. (1994). Individual differences in the nonverbal communication of affect: The Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy Scale. J. Nonverb. Behav. 18: 9–35.
Ozols, E. J., and Rourke, B. P. (1985). Dimensions of social sensitivity in two types of learning disabled children. In Rourke, B. P. (ed.), Neuropsychology of Learning Disabilities: Essentials of Subtype Analysis, Guilford, Press, New York, pp. 281–301.
Petti, V. L., and Voelker, S. L. (1997). In vivo peer interaction skills of children with Nonverbal Learning Disabilities. Paper presented at the 25th Annual International Neuropsychological Society Meeting, Feb. 1997, Orlando, FL.
Rourke, B. P. (1975). Brain-behavior relationships in children with learning disabilities: A research program. Am. Psychol. 30: 911–920.
Rourke, B. P. (1989). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model, Guilford Press, New York.
Rourke, B. P. (1995). Syndrome of Nonverbal Learning Disabilities; Neurodevelopmental Manifestations, Guilford Press, New York.
Rourke, B. P., and Fuerst, D. E. (1996). Psychosocial dimensions of learning disability subtypes. Assessment, 3: 277–290.
Rourke, B. P., Young, G. C., and Leenaars, A. (1989). A childhood learning disability that predisposes those afflicted to adolescent and adult depression and suicide risk. J. Learn. Disabil. 21: 169–175.
Sprouse, C. A., Hall, C. W., Webster, R. E., and Bolen, L. M. (1998). Social perception in students with learning disabilities and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J. Nonverb. Behav. 22: 125–134.
Strang, J. D., and Rourke, B. P. (1985). Arithmetic disability subtypes: The neuropsychological significance of specific arithmetic impairment in childhood. In Rourke, B. P. (ed.), Neuropsychology of Learning Disabilities: Essentials of Subtype Analysis, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 167–183.
Tsatsanis, K. D., Fuerst, D. R., and Rourke, B. P. (1997). Psychosocial dimensions of learning disabilities: External validation and relationship with age and academic functioning. J. Learn. Disabil. 30: 490–502.
White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., and Silva, P. A. (1992). Neuropsychological and socio-emotional correlates of specific-arithmetic disability. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 7: 1–16.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Petti, V.L., Voelker, S.L., Shore, D.L. et al. Perception of Nonverbal Emotion Cues by Children with Nonverbal Learning Disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities 15, 23–36 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021400203453
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021400203453