Abstract
Handwriting is a complex human activity that entails an intricate blend of cognitive, kinesthetic, and perceptual-motor components. Children are expected to acquire a level of handwriting proficiency that enables them to make skillful use of handwriting as a tool to carry out their work at school. Poor handwriters have difficulty developing their writing skills and, as a result, often suffer in their educational and emotional development. This article highlights the importance of handwriting and reviews the development of methods used to evaluate handwriting difficulties. Included also is a discussion of methodological aspects of current handwriting evaluations and a presentation of research on the use of a computerized system that may be helpful in better understanding the handwriting process of poor writers. The article concludes by outlining future directions in handwriting evaluation that combine the assessment of the handwriting product with computerized analysis of the handwriting process.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alimi, A. M., and Plamondon, R. (1996). A comparative study of speed–accuracy tradeoff formulations. The case of spatially constrained movements where both distance and spatial precision are specified. In: Simner, N. L., Leedham, C. G., and Thomassen, W. M. (eds.), Handwriting and Drawing Research, IOS Press, Burke, pp. 127–142.
Alston, J. (1983). A legibility index: Can handwriting be measured? Educ. Rev. 35: 237–242.
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th Ed.), American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
Amundson, S. J. (1995). Evaluation Tool of Children's Handwriting (ETCH) Examiner's Manual, O.T. Kids, Homer, AK.
Amundson, S. J. (1995). Evaluation Tool of Children's Handwriting (ETCH), O.T. KIDS, Homer, AK. See www.alaska.net/∼otkids/about children legibility.htm
Anderson, P. L. (1983). Denver Handwriting Analysis, Academic Therapy, Novato, CA.
Askov, E., Otto, W., and Askov, W. (1970). A decade of research in handwriting: Progress and prospect. J. Educ. Res. 64: 100–111.
Ayres, L. (1912). A Scale for Measuring the Quality of Handwriting of School Children, Russel Sage Foundation, New York.
Benbow, M. (1995). Principles and practices of teaching handwriting. In: Henderson, A., and Pehoski, C. (eds.), Hand Function in the Child, Mosby, St. Louis, MN.
Berninger, V. W. (1994). Reading and Writing Acquisition: A Developmental Neuropsychological Perspective, Brown & Benchmark, Dubuque, IA.
Berninger, V., and Graham, S. (1998). Language by hand: A synthesis of a decade of research on handwriting. Handwriting Rev. 12: 11–25.
Berninger, V., Mizokawa, D., and Bragg, R. (1991). Theory-based diagnosis and remediation of writing. J. Sch. Psychol. 29: 57–59.
Berninger, V. W., Vaughan, K. B., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., Woodruff Rogan, Brooks, A., Reed, E., and Graham, S. (1997). Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers: Transfer from handwriting to composition. J. Educ. Psychol. 89: 652–666.
Bezzi, R. (1962). A standardized manuscript scale for grades 1, 2, and 3. J. Educ. Res. 55: 339–340.
Blote, A., and Hamstra-Bletz, L. (1991). A longitudinal study on the structure of handwriting. Percept. Mot. Skills 72: 983–994.
Bonny, A. M. (1992). Understanding and assessing handwriting difficulties: Perspective from the literature. Aust. Occup. Ther. J. 39: 7–15.
Brigance, A. H. (1983). Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills, Curriculum Press, North Billarica, MA.
Briggs, D. (1980). A study of the influence of handwriting upon grades using examination scripts. Educ. Rev. 32: 185–193.
Bruinsma, C., and Nieuwenhuis, C. (1991). A new method for the evaluation of handwriting material. In: Wann, J., Wing, A. M., and Sovik, N. (eds.), Development of Graphic Skills, Academic Press, New York, pp. 41–51.
Burnhill, P., Hartly, J., and Lindsay, D. (1983). Line paper illegibility and creativity. In: Hartley, J. (ed.), The Psychology of Written Communication, Kogan, London, England, pp. 82–91.
Chase, C. (1986). Essay test scoring: Interaction of relevant variables. J. Educ. Meas. 23: 33–41.
Chu, S. (1997). Occupational therapy for children with handwriting difficulties: A framework for evaluation and treatment. Br. J. Occup. Ther. 60: 514–520.
Cohen, M. R. (1997). Individual and sex differences in speed of handwriting among high school students. Percept. Mot. Skills 84: 1428–1430.
Collins, F., Baer, G., Walls, N., and Jackson, M. S. (1980). The development of a behavioral assessment technique for evaluation gradual change in handwriting performance. Behav. Assess. 2: 369–387.
Cornhill, H., and Case-Smith, J. (1996). Factors that relate to good and poor handwriting. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 50: 732–739.
Daniel, M. E., and Froude, E. (1998). Reliability of occupational therapist and teacher evaluations of handwriting quality of grade 5 and 6 primary school children. Aust. Occup. Ther. J. 45: 48–58.
Diekma, S. M., Deitz, J., and Amundson, S. J. (1997). Test-retest reliability of the evaluation tool of children's handwriting manuscript. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 52: 248–258.
Dutton, K. P. (1990). Writing under exam conditions: Establishing a baseline. Profession. Dev. Initiativ. 1989–90: 189–210.
Dvash, L. E., Levi, M., Traub, R., and Shapiro, M. (1995). Reliability and Validity of the Hebrew Handwriting Evaluation, Unpublished manuscript, Faculty of Medicine, School of Occupational Therapy, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
Erez, N., Yochman, A., and Parush, S. (1996). The Hebrew Handwriting Evaluation, Faculty of Medicine, School of Occupational Therapy, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
Erez, N., Yochman, A., and Parush, S. (1999). The Hebrew Handwriting Evaluation (2nd Ed.), Faculty of Medicine, School of Occupational Therapy, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
Feldt, L. S. (1962). The reliability of measures of handwriting quality. J. Educ. Psychol. 53:288–299.
Formsma, R. (1988). Literature on Evaluation of Handwriting, Indiana University at South Bend, Indiana.
Freeman, F. N. (1959). A new handwriting scale. Elem. Sch. J. 59: 218–221.
Graham, S. (1986a). A review of handwriting scales and factors that contribute to variability in handwriting scores. J. Sch. Psychol. 24: 63–72.
Graham, S. (1986b). The reliability, validity, and utility of three handwriting measurement procedures. J. Educ. Res. 79: 373–380.
Graham, S. (1990). The role of production factors in learning disabled students' compositions. J. Educ. Psychol. 82: 781–791.
Graham, S. (1992). Issues in handwriting instruction. Focus Except. Child. 25: 1–14.
Graham, S., and Weintraub, N. (1996). A review of handwriting research: Progress and prospects from 1980–1994. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 8: 7–86.
Graham, S., Boyer-Schick, K., and Tippets, E. (1989). The validity of handwriting scale from the test of written language. J. Educ. Res. 82: 166–171.
Graham, S., Berninger, V. W., and Weintraub, N. (1998). The relationship between handwriting style and speed and legibility. J. Educ. Res. 5: 290–296.
Graham, S., Harris, K. R., and Fink, B. (2000). Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers. J. Educ. Psychol. 4: 620–633.
Graham, S., Weintraub, N., and Berninger, V. (2001). Which manuscript letters do primary grade children write legibly. J. Educ. Psychol. 3: 488–497.
Groff, P. G. (1961). New spectrum of handwriting. Elem. Engl. 38: 564–565.
Groff, P. G. (1963). Who writes faster? Education 83: 367–369.
Hackney, C. S., Myers, E. M., and Zaner-Bloser, P. (1973). “Sound of!” Teacher's Edition. Expressional Growth Through Handwriting, Zaner-Bloser, Ohio.
Hamstra-Bletz, L., and Blote, A. (1990). Development of handwriting in primary school: A longitudinal study. Percept. Mot. Skills 70: 759–770.
Hamstra-Bletz, L., and Blote, A. (1993). A longitudinal study on dysgraphic handwriting in primary school. J. Learn. Disabil. 26: 689–699.
Hamstra-Bletz, L., DeBie, J., and Den Brinker, B. (1987). Concise Evaluation Scale for children's handwriting, Lisse, Swets & Zeitlinger, Germany.
Harvey, C., and Henderson, S. (1997). Children's handwriting in the first three years of school: Consistency over time and its relationship to academic achievement. Handwriting Rev. 11: 8–25.
Hay, L. (1979). Spatial-temporal analysis of movements in children: Motor programs versus feedback in the development of reaching. J. Mot. Behav. 11: 189–200.
Helwing, J. J., Johns, J. C., Norman, J. E., and Cooper, J. O. (1976). The measurement of manuscript letter strokes. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 9: 231–236.
Henderson, S. E., and Sugden, D. A. (1992). Movement Assessment Battery for Children: A Manual, The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace Jovanovic, Sidcup, Kent, OH.
Henderson, S. E., and Sugden, D. A. (1992). Movement Assessment Batteryfor Children; Manual, The Psychological Corporation, A Harcout Assessment Company, London.
Herrick, V. E. (1960). Handwriting and children's writing. Elem. Engl. 37: 248–258.
Herrick, V. E., and Elebacher, A. (1963). The evaluation of legibility in handwriting. In: Herrick, V. E. (ed.), New Horizons of Research in Handwriting, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Hooper, S., Montgomery, J., Swarts, C., Reed, M., Brown, T., Levine, M., and Wasileski, T. (1993). Prevalence of writing problems across three middle school samples. School Psychol. Rev. 2: 610–621.
Hughes, D. C., Keeling, B., and Tuck, B. F. (1983). Effects of achievement expectations and handwriting quality on scoring essays. J. Educ. Meas. 20: 65–70.
Jones, D., and Christensen, C. A. (1999). Relationship between automaticity in handwriting and student's ability to generate written text. J. Educ. Psychol. 91: 44–49.
Jones, J., Trap, J., and Cooper, J. (1977). Technical report; Student's self recording of manuscript letter strokes. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 10: 509–514.
Kaminsky, S., and Powers, R. (1981). Remediation of handwriting difficulties, a practical approach. Acad. Ther. 17: 19–25.
Krupa, M. (1991). The Effects of Two Writing Aids on the Handwriting of Two Children with Learning Disabilities. Thesis, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA.
Krzesni, J. S. (1971). Effect of different writing tools and paper on performance of the third grader. Elem. Engl. 48: 821–824.
Larsen, S. C., and Hammill, D. P. (1989). Test of Legible Handwriting, Pro-Ed., Austin, TX.
Laszlo, J. I. (1990). Child perceptuo-motor development: Normal and abnormal development of skilled behaviour. In: Hauert, C. A. (ed.), Developmental Psychology: Cognitive, Perceptuo-Motor and Neurophysiological Perspective, North Holland, Amsterdam.
Laszlo, J. I., Bairstow, P. J., and Bartip, J. (1988). A new approach to treatment of perceptuo-motor dysfunction: Previously called clumsiness. Support Learn. 3: 35–40.
Laszlo, J. I., and Broderick, P. (1991). Drawing and handwriting difficulties: Reasons for and remediation of dysfunction. In: Wann, J., Wing, A. M., and Sovik, N. (eds.), Development of Graphic Skills, Academic Press, London, pp. 259–280.
Lewis, E. (1964). An Analysis of Children's Manuscript Handwriting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Levine, M. D. (1993). Developmental Variation and Learning Disorders, Educators Pub., Cambridge, MA, pp. 308–345.
Lifshietz, N., and Parush, S. (1996). Screening Assessment for Children with Handwriting Deficits, Unpublished manuscript, Jerusalem: School of Occupational Therapy, The Hebrew University.
Lilly, L. (1987). The Effects of Service Delivery Models on Children's Handwriting. Thesis, University of Illinois, Chicago.
Lindsay, G. A., and Mclennan, D. (1983). Lined paper; It's effects on the legibility and creativity of young children's writing. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 53: 364–368.
Longstaff, M. G., and Heath, R. A. (1997). Space–time invariance in adult handwriting. Acta Psychol. 97: 201–214.
Maeland, A. F., and Karlsdottir, R. (1991). Development of reading, spelling and writing skills from third to sixth grade in normal and dysgraphic school children. In: Wann, J., Wing, A. M., and Sovik, N. (eds.), Development of Graphic Skills, Academic Press, London, England, pp. 179–184.
Marr, D., and Cermak, S. (2001). Consistency of handwriting development in the early elementary years: A literature review. Isr. J. Occup. Ther. 10: E109-E129.
McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 8: 299–325.
McHale, K., and Cermak, S. A. (1992). Fine motor activities in elementary school: Preliminary findings and provisional implications for children with fine motor problems. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 46: 898–903.
Miller, L. T., Missiuna, C. A., Macnab, J. J., Malloy-Miller, T., and Polatajko, H. J. (2001). Clinical description of children with developmental coordination disorder. Can. J. Occup. Ther. 68: 5–15.
Modlinger, I. (1983). Disorders of Written Language: Diagnosis and Remedial Teaching, Sifriyat Hapoalim, Tel Aviv, Israel.
Mojet, J. W. (1989). Kemmerken van schrijfraardigbeid: Praesaspecten van bet scbrijven bitot twaalfjarigln (Characteristics of the handwriting skill: Process aspects in 6–12 year olds), Academisch Boeken Centrum, De Lier: Academic Boeken Centrum.
Mojet, J. W. (1991). Characteristics of the developing handwriting skill in elementary education. In: Wann, J., Wing, A. M., and Sovik, N. (eds.), Development of Graphic Skills, Academic Press, London, England, pp. 53–74.
Moxley, R. A., et al. (1990). Self Recording and Discussion in Young Children's Formative Self-Evaluation of Their Writing, EDRS, New York.
Otto, W., Askov, E., and Cooper, C. (1967). Legibility rating for handwriting samples: A pragmatic approach. Percept. Mot. Skills 25: 638.
Parush, S., Levanon-Erez, N., and Weintraub, N. (1998a). Ergonomic factors influencing handwriting performance. Work 11: 295–305.
Parush, S., Pindak, V., Han Markowitz, J., and Mazor-Karasenty, T. (1998b). Does fatigue influence children's handwriting performance. Work 11: 307–313.
Phelps, J., and Stempel, L. (1988). The children's handwriting evaluation scale for manuscript writing. Read. Improv. 25: 247–255.
Phelps, J., Stempel, L., and Speck, G. (1985). The children's handwriting scale: A new diagnostic tool. J. Educ. Res. 79: 46–50.
Reinders-Messelink, H., Schoemaker, M. M., Goeken, L., van den Briel, M., and Kamps, W. (1996). Handwriting and fine motor problems after treatment for acute lymphoblastic leykemia. In: Simner, M. L., Leedham, C. G., and Thomassen, A. J. W. M. (eds.), Handwriting and Drawing Research, IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 215–225.
Reisman, J. E. (1991). Poor handwriting, who is refered? Am. J. Occup. Ther. 45: 849–852.
Reisman, J. E. (1993). Development and reliability of the research version of the Minessota Handwriting Test. Phys. Occup. Ther. Pediatr. 13: 41–55.
Rogers, D., and Found, B. (1996). The objective measurement of spatial invariance in handwriting. In: Simner, M. L., Leedham, C. G., and Thomassen, A. J. W. M. (eds.), Handwriting and Drawing Research, IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 3–13.
Rubin, N., and Henderson, S. E. (1982). Two sides of the same coin: Variation in teaching methods and failure to learn to write. Spec. Educ. Forward Trends 9: 17–24.
Sassoon, R. (1997). Dealing with adult handwriting problems. Handwriting Rev. 11: 69–74.
Sasson, R., Nimmo-Smith, I., and Wing, A. M. (1986). An analysis of children's penholds. In: Kao, H., Van Galen, G., and Hossain, R. (eds.), Graphonomics: Contemporary Research in Handwriting, Elsevier Science, North Holland, The Netherlands, pp. 93–106.
Sasson, R., Nimmo-Smith, I., and Wing, A. M. (1986). An analysis of children's penholds. In: Kao, H., Van Galen, G., and Hossain, R. (eds.), Graphonomics: Contemporary Research in Handwriting, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 93–106.
Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C., and Goleman, H. (1982). The role of production factors in writing ability. In: Nystrand, M. (ed.), What Writers Know: The Language Process and Structure of Written Discourse, Academic Press, New York, pp. 173–210.
Shneck, C. M. (1998). Clinical interpretation of “test-retest” reliability of the evaluation tool of children's handwriting manuscript. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 52: 256–258.
Shoemaker, M. M., Shellekens, J. M. H., Kalverboer, A. F., and Kooistra, L. (1994). Pattern drawing by clumsy children: A problem of movement control. In: Simner, M. L., Hulstujin, W., and Girouard, P. (eds.), Contemporary Issues in the Forensic, Developmental, and Neurological Aspects of Handwriting (Monograph of the Association of Forensic Document Examiners, Vol. 1). Association of Forensic Document Examiners, Toronto, pp. 43–64.
Shoemaker, M. M., and Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M. (1997). Dysgraphic children with and without a generalized motor problem: Evidence for subtypes? In: Colla, A. M., Masulli, F., and Morasso, P. (eds.), IGS 1997 Proceedings: Eight Biennial Conference, The International Graphonomics Society, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, pp. 11–12.
Simner, M. L. (1982). Printing errors in kindergarten and the prediction of academic performance. J. Learn. Disabil. 15: 155–159.
Simner, M. L. (1985). Printing Performance School Readiness Test, Guidance Centre, Faculty of Education, University of Toronto, Toronto.
Simner, M. L. (1986). Further evidence on the relationship between form errors in preschool printing and early school achievement. In: Kao, H. S. R., Van Galen, G. P., and Hoosian, R. (eds.), Graphonomics: Contemporary Research in Handwriting, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 107–120.
Simner, M. L. (1986). Further evidence on the relationship between form errors in preschool printing and early school achievement. In: Kao, H. S. R., Van Galen, G. P., and Hoosian, R. (eds.), Graphonomics: Contemporary Research in Handwriting, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Simner, M. L. (1990). Printing performance school readiness test. Acad. Ther. 25: 369–375.
Simner, M. L. (1996). The use of handwriting legibility scales in grade one to help identify children at risk of early school failure. In: Simner, M. L., Leedham, C. G., and Thomassen, A. J. W. M. (eds.), Handwriting and Drawing Research, IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 197–202.
Sims, E., and Weisberg, P. (1984). Effects of page prompts on beginning handwriting legibility. J. Educ. Res. 77: 360–365.
Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Niemeijer, A. S., and Van Galen, G. P. (2001). Fine motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor grapho-motor ability. Hum. Mov. Sci. 20: 161–182.
Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Schomaker, M. M., Van Galen, G. P., and Michels, C. J. M. (1996). Physiotherapy for children's writing problems: Evaluation study. In: Simner, M. L., Leedham, C. G., and Thomassen, A. J. W. M. (eds.), Handwriting and Drawing Research: Basic and Applied Issues, IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 227–240.
Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., and Van Galen, G. P. (1997). Dysgraphia in children: Lasting psychomotor deficiency or transient developmental delay? J. Exp. Child Psychol. 67: 164–184.
Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Van Galen, G. P., and Portier, S. J. (1994a) Psychomotor aspects of poor hand writing in children. In: Simner, M. L., Hulstijn, W., and Girouard, P. L. (eds.), Contemporary Issues in the Forensic, Developmental and Neurological Aspects of Handwriting (Monograph of the association of forensic document examination, Vol. 1), Association of Foresic Document Examiners, Toronto, pp. 17–44.
Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Van Galen, G. P., and Portier, J. (1994b). Psychomotor development of handwriting proficiency: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study on developmental features of handwriting. In: Faure, C., Keuss, P., Lorette, G., and Vinter, A. (eds.), Advances in Handwriting and Drawing. A Multidisciplinary Approach, Europia Press, Paris, pp. 187–205.
Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Van Galen, G. P., and Michels, C. G. J. (1995). De leekrach beoordeeld: Inschatting van schrijfvaardigheidsproblemen en motorisch achterstand bij basisschool leerlingen (Prevalence of poor handwriting and the validity of estimation of motor proficiency and handwriting performance by teachers). Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsresearch 20: 1–15.
Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Van Galen, G. P., and Shoemaker, M. M. (1998). Theory-based diagnosis and subclassification in the developmental coordination disorder. In: Rispens, J., Van Yperen, T. A., and Yule, W. (eds.), Perspective on the Classification of Specific Developmental Disorders, Academic Publisher, London, England, pp. 245–264.
Sovik, N., Arntzen, O., and Thygesen, R. (1987a). Relation of spelling and writing in learning disabilities. Percept. Mot. Skills 64: 219–236.
Sovik, N., Arntzen, O., and Thygesen, R. (1987b). Writing characteristics of “normal,” dyslexic and dysgraphic children. J. Hum. Mov. Stud. 31: 171–187.
Sovik, N., Arntzen, O., Samuelstuen, M., and Heggberget, M. (1994). Relations between linguistic wordgroups and writing. In: Faure, C., Keuss, P., Lorette, G., and Vinter, A. (eds.), Advances in Handwriting and Drawing. A Multidisiciplinary Approach, Europia Press, Paris, pp. 231–246.
Starch, D. (1919). Educational research and statistics: A scale for measuring handwriting. Sch. Soc. 9: 155–158.
Stott, D. H., Henderson, S. E., and Moyes, F. A. (1987). Diagnosis and remediation of handwriting problems. Adapt. Phys. Act. Q. 4: 137–147.
Stott, D. H., Moyes, F. A., and Henderson, S. E. (1984). Diagnosis and Remediation of Handwriting Problems, Hayes Publishers, Burlington, ON.
Stowitschek, J., Ghezzi, P., and Safely, K. (1987). “I'd rather do it myself” Self evaluation and correction of handwriting. Educ. Treat. Child. 10: 209–224.
Sudsawad, P., Trombly, C. A., Henderson, A., and Tickle-Degnen, L. (2001). The relationship between the Evaluation Tool of Children's Handwriting and teachers perceptions of handwriting legibility. Am. J. Occup. Ther. 55: 518–523.
Teulings, H. L. (2001). Optimatization of movements duration in accurate handwriting strokes in different directions in young, elderly, and Parkinsonian subjects. In: Meulenbroek, R. G. J., and Steenbergen, B. (eds.), Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society, University of Nijmegen, IGS, The Netherlands, pp. 40–45.
Teulings, H. L., and Thomassen, A. J. W. M. (1979). Computer aided analysis of handwriting movements. Vis. Lang. 13: 218–231.
Thorndike, E. L. (1910). Handwriting. Teach. Coll. Rec. 11: 83–175.
Trap-porter, J., Gladden, M. A., Hill, D. S., and Cooper, J. O. (1983). Space size and accuracy of second and third grade students cursive handwriting. J. Educ. Res. 76: 231–233.
Tseng, M. H., and Cermak, S. H. (1991). The evaluation of handwriting in children. Sens. Integr. Q. XIX: 3–6.
Van Galen, G. P. (1991). Handwriting: Issues for a psychmotor theory. Hum. Mov. Sci. 10: 165–192.
Van Galen, G. P., and Morasso, P. G. (1998). Neuromotor control in handwriting and drawing: Introduction and overview. Acta Psychol. 100: 1–7.
Van Galen, G. P., Meulenbroek, R., and Bouwhuisen, C. (2001). Neuromotor noise as a window upon cognitive effects in motor control. In: Meulenbroek, R. G. J., and Steenbergen, B. (eds.), Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial Conference of the International Graphonomics Society, University of Nijmegen, IGS, The Netherlands, pp. 68–73.
Van Galen, G. P., Portier, S. J., Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., and Shomaker, L. R. B. (1993). Neuromotor noise and poor handwriting in children. Acta Psychologica 82: 161–178.
Waber, D. P., and Bernstein, J. H. (1994). Repetative graphomotor output in L.D. and nonlearning–disabled children. The Repeated Patterns Test. Dev. Neuropsychol. 10: 51–65.
Wallen, M., Bonney, M., and Lennox, L. (1996). The Handwriting Speed Test, Helios, Adelaide, Australia.
Wann, J. P. (1987). Trends in the refinement and optimization of fine-motor trajectories: Observations from an analysis of the handwriting of primary school children. J. Mot. Behav. 19: 13–37.
Wann, J. P., and Jones, J. G. (1986). Space-time invariance in handwriting. Hum. Mov. Sci. 5: 275–296.
Wann, J. P., and Kadirkamanathan, M. (1991). Variability in children's handwriting computer diagnosis of writing difficulties. In: Wann, J., Wing, A. M., and Sovik, N. (eds.), Development of Graphic Skills, Academic Press, London, England, pp. 223–236.
Ziviani, J. (1984). Some elaborations on handwriting speed in 7-to 14 years old. Percept. Mot. Skills 58: 535–539.
Ziviani, J. (1996). Use of modern cursive handwriting and handwriting speed for children aged 7 to 14 years. Percept. Mot. Skills 82: 282.
Ziviani, J., and Elkins, J. (1984). An evaluation of handwriting performance. Educ. Rev. 36: 249–261.
Ziviani, J., and Elkins, J. (1986). Effects of pencil grip on handwriting speed and legibility. Educ. Rev. 38: 247–257.
Ziviani, J., and Watson-Will, A. (1998). Writing speed and legibility of 7–14 year old school students using modern cursive script. Aust. Occup. Ther. J. 45: 59–64.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rosenblum, S., Weiss, P.L. & Parush, S. Product and Process Evaluation of Handwriting Difficulties. Educational Psychology Review 15, 41–81 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021371425220
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021371425220