Abstract
The present study addresses gaps in the youth violence literature by exploring the types and levels of children's violence exposure in a rural setting and examining psychological trauma associated with violence exposure. The study is a secondary data analysis using a rural sample (N = 549) from a larger study. The larger study employed a 45-minute questionnaire given to students in grades 3 through 8. The questionnaire was designed to assess children's present and past violence exposure as a victim and witness across the home, school, and neighborhood. In addition, this questionnaire assessed children's psychological trauma symptoms.
Our study found that children in the rural sample were exposed to high amounts of violence as both victims and witnesses within, and prior to, the past year. Violence exposure variables explained a significant amount of variance in total trauma symptoms after controlling for demographic variables. This finding is consistent with the literature examining the association of trauma and violence exposure.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American School Health Association. (1989). The national adolescent student health survey. Oakland, CA: Third Party Publishing Co.
Atlas, J., & Hiott, J. (1994). Dissociative experience in a group of adolescents with history of abuse. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 121–122.
Becker-Greenfield, J. (1993). Reflections from the rural task force. In Our Vision, Fall, 6.
Briere, J. (1996). Professional manual for the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSC-C). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Donnermeyer, J. (1996). Crime and violence in rural communities. Available: http://cedar.cic.net/ncrel/sdrs.../envrnmt/drugfree/v1donner.htm
Drongowski, R., Smith, S., Coran, A., & Cullen, M. (1998). Firearm ownership in households with children. Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 33, 589–593.
Edelson, J., & Frank, M. (1991). Rural interventions in women battering: One state's strategies. The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 79, 543–553.
Elliot, D., & Briere, J. (1991). Forensic sexual abuse evaluations of older children: Disclosures and symptomatology. Behavioral Science and Law, 12, 261–277.
Evans, J., Briere, J., Boggiano, A., & Barrett, M. (1994). Reliability and validity of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children in a normal sample. Paper presented at the Conference on Child Maltreatment, California.
Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., Atkins, M., & Marcus, S. (1997). Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 116–122.
Finkelhor, D. (1978). Psychological, cultural, and family factors in incest and family sexual abuse. Journal of Marriage and Family Counseling, 4, 41–49.
Fitzpatrick, K., & Boldizar, J. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 424–430.
Flexner, S. (1988). The Random House Collegiate Dictionary (Revised Edition). New York: Random House, Inc.
Freeman, L., Mokros, H., & Pozmamski, E. (1993). Violent events reported by normal urban school-aged children: Characteristics and depression correlates. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 419–423.
Furlong, M., Chung, A., Bates, M., & Morrison, R. (1995). Who are the victims of school violence? A comparison of student non-victims and multi-victims. Education and Treatment of Children, 18, 282–298.
Harris, L. (1993). A survey of experiences, perceptions, and apprehensions about guns among young people in America. Harvard School of Public Health: Chicago, IL: Joyce Grant Foundation.
Hechinger, F. (1994). Saving youth from violence. Carnage Quarterly, 39, 1–15.
Human, J., & Wasem, C. (1991). Rural mental health in America. American Psychologist, 46, 232–239.
Johnson, M., & Elliot, B. (1997). Domestic violence among family practice patients in midsized and rural communities. The Journal of Family Practice, 44, 391–400.
Kelleher, K., Taylor, J., & Rickert, V. (1992). Mental health services for rural children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 841–852.
Keller, P., & Murray, J. (1982). Handbook of rural community health. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Khattri, N., Riley, K., & Kane, M. (1997). Students at risk in poor rural areas: A review of the research. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 13, 79–100.
Kingery, P., Mirzaee. E., Pruit, B., Hurley, R., & Heuberger, G. (1991). Rural communities near large metropolitan areas: Safe havens from adolescent violence and drug use? Health Values, 15, 39–48.
Lanktree, C., Briere, J., & de Jonge, J. (1993). Effectiveness of therapy for sexually abused children: Changes in Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children scores. Paper presented at the 101st annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.
Leistyna, J. (1980). Advocacy for the abused rural child. In H. Johnson (Ed.), Rural human services: A book of readings (pp. 92–96). Itasca, IL: Peacock.
Lester, D., & Frank, M. (1990). Suicide and homicide in rural areas: A study of Arkansas. Psychological Reports, 66, 426.
Marcus, J. (1998). Treading writing, and reloading rifles. The Times Educational Supplement, 4254, p. 23.
Miller, T., & Veltkamp, L. (1989). Child sexual abuse: The abusing family in rural America. International Journal of Family Psychiatry, 9, 259–75.
Murray, J., & Keller, P. (1991). Psychology and rural America: Current status and future directions. American Psychologist, 46, 220–231.
National Center for Child Abuse and Neglect. (1988). Study of the national incidence and prevalence of child abuse and neglect: 1988. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
National Center for Education Statistics. (1995). Student Victimization at School. Statistics in Brief. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.
Nunnally, J. (1967). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ohio Department of Education. (1995). FY95 vital statistics on Ohio school districts. Columbus, OH: State of Ohio Department of Education.
Onley-Cambell, D. (1991). Starting a rural project for women-issues to consider. National Coalition Against Domestic Violence VOICE, Fall, 21–22.
Petti, T., & Leviton, L. (1986). Re-thinking rural mental health services for children and adolescents. Journal of Public Health Policy, 7, 58–77.
Pynoos, R., & Eth, S. (1985). Children traumatized by witnessing acts of personal violence. In S. Eth & R. Pynoos (Eds.), Post-traumatic stress disorder in children (17–44). Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
Richters, J., & Martinez, P. (1993). The NIMH community violence project: Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry, 56, 7–21.
Riveria, B., & Windom, C. (1990). Childhood victimization and violent offending. Violence and Victims, 5, 19–35.
Russell, D. (1986). The secret trauma: Incest in the lives of girls and women. New York: Basic Books.
Sadowski, L., & Munoz, S. (1996). Nonfatal and fatal firearm injuries in a rural county. Journal of the American Medical Association, 275, 1762–1764.
Sandham, J. (1997). When the hunt is on, some schools close their doors. Education Week, 17, 9.
Schultz, L., & Jones, P. (1983). Sexual abuse of children: Issues. Child Welfare, 62, 99–108.
Singer, M., Anglin, R., Song, L., & Lunghofer, L. (1995). Adolescents' exposure to violence and the association of psychological trauma. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 477–482.
Singer, M., Miller, D., Guo, S., Flannery, D., Frierson, T. & Slovak, K. (1999). Pediatrics, 104, 878–884.
Singer, M., Miller, D., Guo, S., Slovak, K., & Frierson, T. (1998). The mental health consequences of children's exposure: Final report. Cleveland, OH: Cuyahoga County Community Mental Health Research Institute.
Snyder, H. (1994). The criminal victimization of young children. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice.
Song, L., Singer, M., & Anglin, T. (1998). Violence exposure and trauma as contributors to adolescents' violent behaviors. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 152, 531–536.
United States Department of Justice. (1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1992, 1998). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
United States Department of Justice. (1989). Criminal victimization in the United Sates, 1987. A National Crime Survey Report, NCJ-115524. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
United States Department of Justice. (1992). Crime victimization in city, suburban, and rural areas. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
United States Department of Justice. (1997). Uniform crime reports for the United States. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
Weisheit, R., Falcone, D., & Wells, E. (1994). Rural crime and rural policing. Review prepared with the support of the National Institute of Justice (Grant# 92-IJ-CXK012).
Weisheit, R., & Wells, L. (1996). Rural crime and rural policing: Implications for theory and research. Crime and Delinquency, 42, 379–397.
Zuckerman, D. (1996). Media violence, gun control, and public policy. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 378–389.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Slovak, K., Singer, M.I. Children and Violence: Findings and Implications from a Rural Community. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 19, 35–56 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014003306441
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014003306441