Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Adventure Programming on Locus of Control

  • Published:
Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Adventure programs utilize the outdoors and/or activities to accomplish goals that are recreational, educational, enrichment or preventive oriented, or therapeutic. These programs encourage active manipulation of surroundings and the utilization of pro-active survival skills. In the growing field of Adventure Programming (and within the more specific field of Adventure Therapy), there exists a need to link valuable program characteristics to specific outcomes. Locus of control has been theorized to be a moderator of change in adventure programs, however past research has yielded inconsistent and contradicting results. An attempt was made to replicate the effect size of 0.30 generated within the comprehensive meta-analyses of both D. R. Cason (1993) and J. Hattie, H. W. Harsh, J. T. Neill, and G. E. Richards (1997). A slightly higher effect size of 0.38 was computed, substantiating evidence that subjects across studies became significantly more internal as a result of participation. Investigation of specific outcomes yielded two possible variables as moderators of locus of control effect size: program goal and daily duration.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Achuff, C. L. (1997). An exploratory qualitative investigation of specific components viewed as most effective by adjudicated youth in an expedition based wilderness program. Unpublished master's thesis, Georgia College & State University, Milledgeville, Georgia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akrakelian, M. (1980). An assessment and nursing application of the concept of locus of control. Advances in Nursing Science, 3, 25–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Anderson, A. L. (1995). The effect of a wilderness therapy program on youth-at-risk, as measured by locus of control and self-concept. Unpublished master's thesis, Brigham Young University, Salt Lake City, Utah.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, H. J. (1985). Task performance, perceived competence, and attributed causes of performance as determinants of intrinsic motivation. Academy of Management Jounal, 28, 876–888.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandoroff, S. (1989). Wilderness adventure therapy for delinquent and pre-delinquent youth: A review of the literature (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 377 428).

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 46, 359–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertolami, C. (1986). Effects of a wilderness program on self-esteem and locus of control orientations of young adults (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 266 928).

  • Blanchard, C. (1992). Experiential therapy with troubled youth: The ropes course for adolescent inpatients (Report No. RC 018 9335). Proceedings of the International Conference of the Association for Experiential Education, Banff, Alberta, Canada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 353 116).

  • Boyle, S. (1985). The effects of a ropes course experience on locus of control self-esteem (Doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State, 1985). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(12), 4391B.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buie, A. (1996). National association for therapeutic wilderness camping: History. Webpage http://www.natwc.org/history.html.

  • Burton, L. M. (1981). A critical analysis and review of the research on outward bound and related programs (University Microfilms No. 8122147). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 1581B.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Callahan, R. C. (1989). Academic and therapeutic potential of the Sierra II process: An evaluation of an adapted Outward Bound diversion program for adjudicated juvenile delinquents (University Microfilms No. AAD90–07084). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(03), 724A.

  • Cason, D. R. (1993). A meta-analysis of adventure programming with adolescents. Unpublished master's thesis, Georgia College, Milledgeville, Georgia.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Corsica, J. (1987). Project Change: An ethnography of a social action project. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48(05), 1244A.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Davis-Berman, J., & Berman, D. S. (1989). The wilderness therapy program: An empirical study of its effects with adolescents in an outpatient setting. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 19, 271–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deery, B. (1983). The effect of project adventure on sixth grader's reading and math scores, and its relationship to locus of control (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(02), 0435A.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Doyle, W. E. (1981). An outdoor-challenge experience and the affective development of college students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1981). Dissertations Abstracts International, 42, 1022A.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Elstad, K. L. (1989). An evaluation of the process of change during participation in an adventure challenge program for hospitalized adolescents. Unpublished master's thesis, Georgia College, Milledgeville, Georgia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewert, A. (1987). Research in experiential education: An overview. Journal of Experiential Education, 10, 4–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Fersch, E.,& Smith, M. (1978). Project Adventure-Year I, final quantitative evaluation for 1971–1972 (Report No. RC011 556). Project Adventure, Inc., Hamilton, MA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 173 059).

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, R. W., Anderson, C., Kairey, I., & Hunt, P. F. (1982). Evaluation of Camp Tortuga, a two week children's therapeutic day camp via goal attainment scaling and locus of control. Children and Youth Services Review, 4, 375–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaar, L. (1981). Interpersonal interaction in youth offenders during a therapeutic wilderness experience: A social learning perspective (Doctoral dissertation, Emory University, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 2055B.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gass, M. (1993). Adventure therapy: Therapeutic applications of adventure programming. Dubesque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Gaston, D. (1978). An empirical investigation of wilderness adventure programs for teenagers: The Connecticut Wilderness School (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 178 250).

  • *Gillis, H. L. (1981). The effects of camping/construction experience on the self-concepts, locus of control, and academic achievement of high school students. Unpublished Master's thesis, Middle Tennessee State University.

  • Gillis, H. L., & Thomsen, D. (1996). A research update (1992–1995) of adventure therapy: Challenge activities and ropes courses, wilderness expeditions, and residential camping programs. Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Symposium. Symposium conducted at Bradford Woods, Indiana University, Martinsville, IN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, D. A., & Bolick, T. (1979). The role of self-reinforcement and causal attribution in children's task persistence. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 135, 255–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahn, K. (1957). Outward bound. New York: World Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational Research, 67, 43–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huie, J. C. (1984). A semester outward bound course: An exploratory study of effects on locus of control, values and life meanings (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1982). Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(05), 1372–1373A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, I. R., & Purcell, K. D. (1984). Program characteristics and success in a resocialization program for adjudicated delinquents. Corrective & Social Psychiatry, 25–35.

  • Johnson, B. T. (1989). Software for the meta-analytic review of research literatures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joynt, D. (1974). Repeated obstacles, participant expectation (Rope) Project: Design and implementation of an outdoor learning experience. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 1974.

  • Kelly, F. J., & Baer, D. J. (1969). Jesness inventory and self-concept measures for delinquent boys before and after participation in outward bound. Psychological Reports, 25, 719–724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, F. J., & Baer, D. J. (1971). Physical challenge as a treatment for delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 17, 437–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Langsner, S. J., & Anderson, S. C. (1987). Outdoor challenge education and self-esteem and locus of control of children with behavior disorders. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 4, 237–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, H. (1981). Differentiating among internality, powerful others, and chance. Research with the Locus of Control Construct, 1, 15–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Marsh, H. W., Richards, G. E., & Barnes, J. (1986). Multidimensional self-concepts: The effect of participation in an Outward Bound program. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 195–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Minor, K., & Elrod, P. (1994). The effects of a probation intervention on juvenile offender's selfconcepts, loci of control, and perceptions of juvenile justice. Youth & Society, 25, 490–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Nowicki, S., & Barnes, J. (1973). Effects of a structured camp experience on locus of control orientation. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 122, 247–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., & Duke, M. (1974). A locus of control scale for noncollege as well as college adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 38, 136–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., & Duke, M. (1983). The Nowicki-Strickland life-span locus of control scales: Construct validation. Research with the Locus of Control Construct, 2, 9–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., & Strickland, B. R., (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology, 40, 148–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Parker, M.W. (1992). Impact of adventure interventions on traditional counseling interventions (University Microfilms No. AAD92–38474) Dissertation Abstracts International, 53(09), 4964B.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawlowski, M., Holme, G., & Hafner, R. J. (1993). Wilderness therapy for psychiatric disabilities. Mental Health in Australia, 5, 8–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Powers, K. R. (1983). The effects of physical challenge training on self-concept and locus of control (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1983). Dissertations Abstract International, 44, 2364A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Priest, S. (1993). A new model for risk taking. The Journal of Experiential Education, 16, 50–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Priest, S., & Baillie, R. (1987). Justifying the risk to others: The real razor's edge. Journal of Experiential Education, 10, 16–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Priest, S., & Gass, M. A. (1998). Effective leadership in adventure programming. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Richards, G. E., VanGelder, J., & Neill, J. T. (1994). Locus of control changes on an Outward Bound standard course. Australia Outward Bound Foundation, Canberra.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ringer, M. (1994). Adventure therapy: A map of the field: Towards a definition of adventure therapy: Workshop Report. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal and external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, No. 609, 80, 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Sakofs, M., & Schuurman, D. (1991). Assessing the impact of the wilderness alternative for youth program: An Outward Bound program for adjudicated youth (Report No. RC 018 146). Greenwich, Conn: Outward Bound, Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. 339 556).

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. (1995). The effectiveness of psychotherapy: The Consumer Reports study. American Psychologist, 50, 965–974.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Shasby, G., Heuchert, C., & Gansneder, B. (1984). The effects of a structured camp experience on locus of control and self-concept of special populations. Therapeutic Recreation, 18, 32–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Stremba, R. H. (1977). A study of the relationship between participation in an outward bound program and changes in self-esteem and locus of control (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1977). University Microfilms, No. 77 27014.

  • *Taylor, F. (1989). The influence of an outdoor adventure recreation class on personality type, locus of control, self-esteem, and selected issues of identity development of college students (Doctoral dissertation, San Francisco State University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(04), 1122A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tholkes, B. (1994). Anxiety and outdoor adventure: A study of state anxiety and activity performance on the ropes course (Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1994). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55(04), 2123A.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Ulrey, G. (1974). Effects of outdoor education on children's locus of control. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston College, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Wright, A. (1982). Therapeutic potential of outward bound process: An evaluation of a treatment program for juvenile delinquents (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1982). Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 923A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. (1985). An attribution theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92, 548–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witman, J. P. (1993). Characteristics of adventure programs valued by adolescents in treatment. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 1, 127–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, F. M. (1986). Meta-analysis: Quantitative methods for research synthesis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Ziven, H. S. (1988). The effects of the challenge group treatment program on psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents (University Microfilms No. AAD88–17729). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49(10), 4567.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Zwart, T. (1988). The effects of a wilderness/adventure program on the self-concept, locus of control and interpersonal behavior of delinquent adolescents (Doctoral dissertation, Western Michigan University, 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 1709A.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 2000 Linwood Ave., Apt 2V, Fort Lee, NJ, 07024

    Tracy A. Hans

Authors
  1. Tracy A. Hans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hans, T.A. A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Adventure Programming on Locus of Control. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy 30, 33–60 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003649031834

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003649031834

Keywords

Search

Navigation